Government of Tamilnadu

Department of Employment and Training

Course : TNPSC Group II Exam

Subject : Geography
Topic : Atmosphere, Weather & Climate, Monsoon, Rainfall

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 Geography

CLIMATOLOGY

These differences are the outcome of the

WEATHER AND CLIMATE:
angle of the sun at any particular spot,
Weather and Climate are two terms which vary by latitude of the tropics.
which are are used in day-to-day life. This
is because our daily routine is based on Climate:
The word climate is defined as the
the prevailing weather conditions. Human
weather averaged over a long period of
activity of any region is determined by
time and over a large area. The standing
weather and climate. Our food habits,
average period is 30 years.
customs, traditions and even most of our
common celebrations are associated with Factors determining Weather and
weather and climate. Climate:
Day-to-day factors affect the weather
Weather:
element. The following factors affect the
Weather refers to the physical state of
climate of the place.
the atmosphere within 24 hours, described
1. Latitude: The equator receives vertical
by weather elements such as temperature,
rays which fall over a small area. In
atmospheric pressure, humidity, rainfall, contrast, the polar regions receive
cloudiness, wind speed and wind direction. slanting sunrays and they fall over a


 Geography

wide area. As a result of this, places 5. Direction of prevailing winds: The

near the equator are hotter than the winds that blow from the sea to land
poles. contain more moisture so they are cool
Normal Lapse Rate: and wet. On the other hand, the winds
Temperature decreases as altitude blowing from land are warm and dry.
increases.This occurs at a rate of 1 6. El Nino effect: El Nino is formed
degree Celsius/ 165 meters, which is during Christmas time and continues
6.5 degree Celsius per kilometer. for a few months. During this
period, once in five or six years, the
2. Altitude: The places located on high
temperature raises rapidly and
altitudes are always colder than their
a low pressure system is formed
counter parts in the lower altitudes.
This is because the air becomes along the coast of Peru and
thinner as altitude increases and they Ecuador. This low pressure system
absorb only less heat. attracts the winds from all directions.
3. Distance from the sea: The So, the trade winds become weak over
Sea absorbs and retains heat for the Indian ocean and the Pacific ocean
long duration. The coastal areas and these winds are deflected causing
experience the cool, wet air from a prolonged dry periods in many parts
the sea throughout the year along of the world.
the coast to have uniform weather 7. Human influence: As a result of
both in the winter and summer this Industrial revolution, forest areas
condition is said to be an equtable
have been cleared and we have many
climate or maritime climate. On the
types of transport facilities, concrete
other hand, the land absorbs and
buildings and many industries. All
loses heat quickly. The interior land
these developments made our life
areas experience warm dry air. They
are very hot in summer and very cold easy and comfortable. On the other
in winter. This condition is said to be hand, their effects are felt in the name
continental climate. of global warming, greenhouse effect
4. Ocean currents: Based on and pollution, which have increased
temperature, the ocean currents are the amount of CO2. Creation of
classified as warm ocean currents and urabn heat island is also an effect
cold ocean currents. Warm currents of human influence. These islands
make the coastal area warm, wet, and occur in metropolitan areas, which
free from ice. On the contrary, cold are significantly warmer than their
current makes the coastal area cool, surrounding areas.
dry and bring in icebergs.


 Geography

ATMOSPHERE There are four major layers of the

Air is essential to the survival of all atmosphere. They are troposphere,
organisms. Some organisms like humans stratosphere, ionosphere and
can survive without the food and water but exosphere.
not without breathing the air. Atmosphere Troposphere: Troposphere begins at
is a mixture of gases and it envelopes the the surface of the earth and extends up
earth all around. It contains life giving to 8 kms at the poles and 18 kms at the
gases. The air is an integral part of the equator. This layer is known for all kind
mass of the earth and 99% of the total of weather changes such as temperature,
mass of the atmosphere is confined to 32 pressure, winds, cloud formation and
Km from the earth’s surface. rainfall. In this layer alone, the temperature
decreases with increasing height. The
Composition of the atmosphere:
tropopause is a thin layer that lies between
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases,
the troposphere and the stratosphere.
water vapour and dust particles. The
proportion of gases changes in higher
layers of the atmosphere. The quantity of
oxygen is negligible as we go to the higher
layers and similarly carbon dioxide and
water is found only upto 90 km from the
surface of the earth.
Constituent Percentage by
volume
Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.036 Structure of the Atmosphere

Neon 0.002
Helium 0.0005 Stratosphere:
Krypton 0.001 Stratosphere extends approximately
Xenon 0.00009 for about 50 km. Temperature increases
Hydrogen 0.00005 with height. This is the layer where
most jet planes fly, owing to the lack for
weather phenomena. The top edge of the
stratosphere is rich in Ozone (20-50). They
capture the harmful ultraviolet rays from


 Geography

the sun, making the light reaching the surface. Incoming solar radiation is
earth’s surface harmless. Since unfiltered called insolation. Heat energy from solar
radiation from the sun can destroy all radiation is received by Earth through
animal tissue, Ozone is very important three mechanisms. They are: i) radiation
to all living things on earth. This zone in the atmosphere ii) Conduction over
is also called as isothermal layer and land and iii) Convection in the water
ozonosphere. After the stratosphere, there bodies. The Earth’s atmosphere is heated
is again a buffer layer called stratopause. more by terrestrial radiation than by the
Mesosphere: It extends approximately insolation.
for about 80 km.
Factors controlling the temperature
Ionosphere: Ionosphere stretched from
80 kms- 500 kms. It is called ionosphere distribution:
because in this part of the atmosphere a) The latitude: The temperature of
the sun’s radiations gets ionized. It a place depends on the insolation
reflects the radio waves back to the earth received. Insolation varies
which help in modern communications. according to the latitude of the
The colorful display of auroras are called place hence temperature also varies
the northern lights or aurora borealis accordingly.
in the northern hemisphere and southern b) The Altitude: The atmosphere
lights or aurora australis in the is indirectly heated by terrestrial
southern hemisphere. radiation from below. Therefore,
Exosphere: The exosphere is the the places near sea level record
uppermost layer of the atmosphere. The higher temperature than the places
main gases within the exosphere are the situated in higher altitudes. In other
lighter gases, mainly hydrogen and helium. words, temperature decreases with
The exosphere is sometimes considered a increase in height. This is called
part of outer space. Normal Lapse Rate. It is 6.5 degree
Celsius per 1000 meters.
c) Distance from the sea:
TEMPERATURE Another factor that influences
DISTRIBUTION the temperature is the location
of a place with respect to the sea.
The sun is the source of light and
Compared to land, the sea gets
heat to the earth. Earth receives only a
heated slowly. Land heats up and
small amount of solar radiation which
cools down quickly. Therefore, the
takes eight minutes to reach the earth’s
variation in temperature over the


 Geography

sea is less compared to land. The Distribution of Temperature:

places situated near the sea come The global distribution of temperature
under the moderating influencing can well be understood by studying the
of the sea and land breeze which temperature distribution in January
moderate temperature. and July. The temperature distribution
d) Air-mass and ocean currents: is generally shown on the map with the
Like the land and sea breezes, help of isotherms. The Isotherms are lines
the passage of air masses also joining places having equal temperature.
influences the temperature of a land
mass. The places which come under
the influence of warm air mass
experience high temperatures and
the places which come under the
influence of cold air mass experience
low temperatures. Similarly, the
places located on the coast where
the warm ocean currents flow
records higher temperature than
the places located on the coast
where cold currents flow.
e) Direction of Prevailing winds :
The winds that blow from the sea
contain more moisture so they are
cool and wet and cause rainfall
 Ex - Southwest Monson
 The winds that blow from the
land areas are warm and dry
(No Rainfall)
 Ex - North East Monsoon The above figures show the distribution of
f) ELNINO Effect : It is warm surface air temperature in the
oceanic current. Month of January and July.

g) Human Influence : Deforestation In general the effect of the latitude

and human development are felt in on temperature is well pronounced on
the name of Global warming. Green the map, as the isotherms are generally
house effect, and pollution, which parallel to the latitude. The deviation from
have increased the amount of Co2. this general trend is more pronounced in


 Geography

January than in July, especially in the Inversion of Temperature:

northern hemisphere. In the northern Normally, temperature decreases with
hemisphere the land surface area is much increase in elevation. It is called normal
larger than in the southern hemisphere. lapse rate. At times, the situation is reversed
Hence, the effects of land mass and the and the normal lapse rate is inverted. It is
ocean currents are well pronounced. called inversion of temperature. Inversion
In January the isotherms deviate to is usually of short duration.
the north over the ocean and to the A long winter night with clear skies
south over the continent. and still air is ideal situation of inversion.
The heat of the day is radiated off during
Daily range of temperature:
the nights and by early morning hours,
 The differences between the maximum
the earth is cooler than the air above.
and minimum temperatures of a
Over polar areas, temperature inversion is
day is called the diurnal range of
normal throughout the year.
temperature.
Surface inversion promotes stability in
 It is Low in Equator. It is high in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke
Desert Areas and tropical interior and dust particles get collected beneath
land during summer. the inversion layer and spread horizontally
Mar 21 - Vernal Equinox to fill the lower strata of the atmosphere.
June 22 - Summer Solstice Dense fogs in the mornings are common
Sep 23 - Autumnal Equinox occurrences during the winter season.
Dec 22 - Winter Solstice This lasts till the sun comes up and warms
up the earth.
Annual range of temperature: The inversion which takes place in hills
 The differences between Mean and mountains is due to air drainage. Cold
temperature of the hottest and air at the hills and mountains, produced
coldest months of the year is known during night, flow under the influence of
as annual range of temperature. gravity. Being heavy and dense, the cold
air moves down and piles up in the pockets
 It is very less in equatorial region.
and valley bottoms with warm air above.
The range is increases from Equator
This is called air drainage. It protects
to subpolar region.
plants from frost damages.
 It is high in Desert regions.


 Geography

PRESSURE BELTS c) Sub polar Low Pressure Belt: This

belt lies between 60°- 65° latitudes
Air pressure is defined as the pressure
in both the hemispheres and the
thrust by the weight of the air on the
air spreads outward from this zone
earth’s surface. The average air pressure
due to the rotation of the earth so
at the sea level is 1,013 millibars. The
the low pressure is produced.
horizontal distribution of the air pressure
d) Polar High Pressure Belt: This
is highly influenced by the temperature of
pressure belt persists at the poles.
a given place. The atmospheric pressure is
The sunrays fall very slanting
always inversely related to the atmospheric
at the poles and as a result the
temperature. The high pressure belts are
temperature is low and heavy air
formed in the areas of low temperature.
accumulates and produces high
a) Equatorial Low Pressure Belt:
pressure.
This belt lies between 5°N and
e) General circulation of the
5°S. The sunrays are vertical over
atmosphere
here throughout the year. Since
The pattern of planetary winds
temperature is high, the air become
largely depends on:
slighter and ascending. It causes
(i) Latitudinal variation of
low pressure conditions. This zone
atmospheric heating;
is otherwise called as “a belt of
(ii) Emergence of pressure belts;
Calm” or “Doldrums”.
(iii) The migration of belts following
b) Subtropical High Pressure
apparent path of the sun;
Belt: This zone lies between 25°
(iv) The distribution of continents
and 35° latitudes in both the
and oceans;
hemispheres. The ascended air
(v) The rotation of earth.
from the tropics is getting cooled
The air in horizontal motion is called
due to low temperature so the
wind. The air generally moves from high
air descends at about 30°- 35°
pressure area to the low pressure area. The
latitudes. In ancient times, the
speed of the wind is generally mentioned
merchants carrying horses in their
in kilometers or miles at land and in knots
ships had to throw some of them
at sea.
out while passing through this
zone of the calm in order to lighten
the ship. Hence, this zone is called
“horse latitudes”.


 Geography

WINDS: CYCLONES AND

ANTI CYCLONES:

Planetary Winds:
The winds that blow from a particular
direction throughout the year are known
as the planetary winds. The pattern of the
movement of the planetary winds is called
the general circulation of the atmosphere.
The general circulation of the atmosphere
Simplification general circulation of the
also sets in motion the ocean water atmosphere
circulation which influences the earth’s
The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence
climate.
Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection
caused by high insolation and a low
Ferrels’s law
pressure is created. The winds from the
 All moving bodies like wind and ocean
tropics converge at this low pressure zone.
currents get deflected from their
The converged air rises along with the
normal paths towards right in the
convective cell. It reaches the top of the
northern hemisphere and towards
troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km.
left in the southern hemisphere due
and moves towards the poles. This causes
to the rotation of the earth. (coriolis
accumulation of air at about 30 degree N
force)
and S. Part of the accumulated air sinks
 Coriolis force is zero in Equator.
to the ground and forms a subtropical
 It is increasing from Equator to
high. Another reason for sinking is the
poles. So the rate of deflection also
cooling of air when it reaches 30 degree N
increases with the distance from the
Equator.

WINDS

Planetary Winds Local Winds Seasonal & Periodic Variable Winds

Trade Winds They are called Winds Cyclones
Westerlies different names in Monsoon Winds Anticyclones
Polar Winds different places. Land Breeze
Sea Breeze


 Geography

and S latitudes. Down below near the land Seasonal and Periodic Winds:
surface the air flows towards the equator Differences in the heating and cooling
as the easterlies. The easterlies from either of earth surfaces and the cycles those
side of the equator converge in the Inter develop daily or annually can create
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such several common, local or regional winds.
circulations from the surface upwards and
vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in Land and Sea Breezes:
the tropics is called Hadley Cell.
In the middle latitudes the circulation
is that of sinking cold air that comes from
the poles and the rising warm air that
blows from the subtropical high. At the
surface these winds are called westerlies
and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
At polar latitudes the cold dense air
subsides near the poles and blows towards
middle latitudes as the polar easterlies.
This cell is called the Polar cell.

These there cells set the pattern for the

Sea Breeze
general circulation of the atmosphere.
The transfer of heat energy from lower
latitudes to higher latitudes maintains
the general circulation.

The general circulation of the

atmosphere also affects the oceans. The
large-scale winds of the atmosphere
initiate large and slow moving currents
of the ocean. Oceans in turn provide
input of energy and water vapour into the
air. These interactions take place rather
slowly over a large part of the ocean.
Land Breeze


 Geography

The land and sea absorb and transfer Anemometer: It is an instrument

heat differently. During the day the land used to measure the velocity and
heats up faster and becomes warmer than direction of wind.
the sea. Therefore, over the land the air Wind Vane: It is used to indicate the
raises giving rise to a low pressure area, direction of the wind.
whereas the sea is relatively cool and the
pressure over sea is relatively high. Thus, Monsoon Winds:
pressure gradient from sea to land is They are like land and sea breezes on
created and the wind blows from the sea a large scale. They are periodic seasonal
to the land as the sea breeze. In the night winds that are characterized by a seasonal
the reversal of this condition takes place. reversal of winds. They blow from land to
The land loses heat faster and gets cooler sea in winter and sea to land in summer.
than the sea. The pressure gradient is They prevail in the regions of the Indian
from the land to the sea and hence land sub-continent, South East Asia and
breeze results. Northern Australia. The term ‘monsoon’,
meaning season, is derived from the Arabic
Mountain and Valley Winds: word Mausim. The South-west monsoon
In mountainous regions, during the
brings heavy to moderate rain to the Indian
day the slopes get heated up and air
landmass from June to September. In
moves upslope and to fill the resulting
winter, the monsoon receives its direction
gap the air from the valley blows up the
so that winds blow out of the continent as
valley. This wind is known as the valley
the North-east monsoon towards the Bay
breeze. During the night the slopes get
of Bengal and Indian Ocean.
cooled and the dense air descends into the
valley as the mountain wind. The cool air, Local Winds:
of the high plateaus and ice fields draining These winds blow with some special
into the valley is called katabatic wind. characteristics over a small area and last
Another type of warm wind occurs on the for a short period. All these winds are
leeward side of the mountain ranges. The mostly seasonal and given local names.
moisture in these winds, while crossing
the mountain ranges condenses and
precipitates. When it descends down the
leeward side of the slope the dry air gets
warmed up by adiabatic process. This dry
air may melt the snow in a short time.

10
 Geography

Name Location Characteristics

Loo Northern Indian Plains Hot and dry, Dust storm
It can be fatal.
Period: May to June
Chinook Wind ward and Warm and moist wind.
means Snow leeward side of Rocky Gives rain and snow to windward side of
eater mountains Rocky mountains.
Melts snow in the leeward side of Rockies.
Foehn Alps of Europe Similar to Chinook in character
Berg Off the South African Similar to Chinook in character
plateau
Santa Ana Southern California Hot dry descending winds. They may even
cause fires in the dry areas.
Mistral Shores of north-west Cold dry winds
Mediterranean in
France
Bora Shores of north-west Cold dry winds
Mediterranean in Italy
Leveche Spain Furious warm wind
Sirocco Northern Africa, Hot and dry wind originating in the Sahara
Southern Sicily desert and blows through the Mediterranean
sea to reach Sicily. Rainfall brought by these
winds are usually brown in color (due to
desert sand and dust in air) It is called Blood
Rain.
Nor’westers Bengal and Assam Violent thunder storms during April to June,
(In Bengal before the onset of South-West monsoon. It is
it is called the rain from these winds that sustains the
kalbaisaki) tea plants even in hot season.
Brick Fielder Australia Warm Wind
Harmattan Central Africa Warm Wind
Purga Russia Cold Wind
Norte Gulf of Mexico Cold Wind
Pampero Argentina Cold Wind

11
 Geography

Variable Winds: caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall

They are known as Cyclones in the and storm surges. This is one of the most
Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, devastating natural calamities.
Typhoons in the Western Pacific and
South China Sea, and Willy-willies in the
Favourable Conditions:
Tropical cyclones originate and
Western Australia.
intensify over warm tropical oceans. The
The variable winds have no definite
conditions favourable for the formation
location or direction. These winds are
and intensification of tropical storms are:
getting fluctuated by means of its direction
1. Large sea surface with temperature
and speed. Cyclones and anti-cyclones
higher than 27°C;
are included in this category. They affect
2. Presence of the Coriolis force;
limited areas for a few days only.
3. Small variations in the vertical wind
Cyclone: speed;
Tropical cyclones are violent storms 4. A pre-existing weak low- pressure
that originate over oceans in tropical area or low-level-cyclonic
areas and move over to the coastal areas circulation;
bringing about large scale destruction 5. Upper divergence above the sea level
system.

List of Tropical Cyclones that affected India

S.I No Year Name Affected State Named Country
1. 17th Oct 1999 Orissa, - -
Super Cyclone
2. 2008 Nisha Tamil Nadu -
3. 2008 Laila Andra Pradesh -
4. 29th Dec, 2011 Thane - -
5. 2012 Nilam Andra Pradesh & -
Tamil Nadu
6. 2013 Lehar & Helan Andra Pradesh
7. 2013 Phailin Odisha -
8. 2013 Madi Tamil Nadu -
9. 12 Oct, 2014 Hudhud Odish & Andra Oman (It is Hoope
Pradesh Bird which is called
Hudhud in Arabic)
10. Oct 2014 Nilofar - Gujarat - Pakistan

12
 Geography

Eye of the Cyclone

The eye is a region of calm with subsiding

air. Around the eye is the eye wall, where
The energy that intensifies the storm there is a strong spiralling ascent of air to
comes from the condensation process greater height reaching the tropopause.
in the towering cumulonimbus clouds, The wind reaches maximum velocity in
surrounding the centre of the storm. With this region, reaching as high as 250 km
per hour. Torrential rain occurs here.
continuous supply of moisture from the
From the eye wall rain bands may radiate
sea, the storm is further strengthened.
and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus
On reaching the land the moisture supply
clouds may drift into the outer region.
is cut off and the storm dissipates. The The diameter of the storm over the Bay
place where a tropical cyclone crosses the of Bengal, Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean
coast is called the landfall of the cyclone. is between 600 - 1200 km. The system
The cyclones, which cross 200N latitude moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day.
generally, recurve and they are more The cyclone creates storm surges and they
destructive. inundate the coastal low lands. The storm
A mature tropical cyclone is characterized peters out on the land.
by the strong spirally circulating wind Temperate Cyclone:
around the centre, called the eye. The  Formed in Temperate areas
diameter of the circulating system can  Formed in both land and ocean
vary between 150 and 250 km. areas.

13
 Geography

 Formed due to frontal development. The air containing moisture to its full
Anti-Cyclone: The anticyclones are the capacity at a given temperature is said to
centres of the high pressure systems from be saturated. It means that the air at the
which the wind movement takes place given temperature is incapable of holding
outward. These winds are associated with any additional amount of moisture at that
clear weather and no rainfall. The anti- stage. The temperature at which saturation
cyclones move clock wise in the northern occurs in a given sample of air is known as
hemisphere and anti-clock wise in the dew point.
southern hemisphere. They are mostly
Evaporation And Condensation:
formed over the land so they are dry.
The amount of water vapour in the
HUMIDITY, CONDENSATION atmosphere is added or withdrawn
AND PRECIPITATION due to evaporation and condensation
respectively.
Water vapour present in the air is known
Evaporation is a process by which water
as humidity. It is expressed quantitatively
is transformed from liquid to gaseous state.
in different ways.
Heat is the main cause for evaporation.
Absolute Humidity: The actual
The temperature at which the water
amount of the water vapour present in
starts evaporating is referred to as the
the atmosphere is known as the absolute
latent heat of vapourisation. Increase
humidity. It is the weight of water vapour
in temperature increases water absorption
per unit volume of air and is expressed in
and retention capacity of the given parcel
terms of grams per cubic metre. The ability
of air. Similarly, if the moisture content
of the air to hold water vapour depends
is low, air has a potentiality of absorbing
entirely on its temperature. The absolute
and retaining moisture. Movement of
humidity differs from place to place on the
air replaces the saturated layer with the
surface of the earth.
unsaturated layer. Hence, the greater
Relative Humidity: The percentage
the movement of air, the greater is the
of moisture present in the atmosphere
evaporation.
as compared to its full capacity at a
The transformation of water vapour into
given temperature is known as the
water is called condensation. Condensation
relative humidity. With the change of
is caused by the loss of heat. When moist
air temperature,the capacity to retain
air is cooled, it may reach a level when
moisture increases or decreases and the
its capacity to hold water vapour ceases.
relative humidity is also affected. It is
Then, the excess water vapour condenses
greater over the oceans and least over the
into liquid form. If it directly condenses
continents.

14
 Geography

into solid form, it is known as sublimation. Dew: When the moisture is deposited
In free air, condensation results from in the form of water droplets on cooler
cooling around very small particles termed surfaces of solid objects (rather than
as hygroscopic condensation nuclei. nuclei in air above the surface) such as
Particles of dust, smoke and salt from stones, grass blades and plant leaves, it
the ocean are particularly good nuclei is known as dew. The ideal conditions
because they absorb water. Condensation for its formation are clear sky, calm air,
also takes place when the moist air comes high relative humidity, and cold and long
in contact with some colder object and it nights. For the formation of dew, it is
may also take place when the temperature necessary that the dew point is above the
is close to the dew point. Condensation, freezing point.
therefore, depends upon the amount of Frost: Frost forms on cold surfaces
cooling and the relative humidity of the when condensation takes place below
air. Condensation is influenced by the freezing point (00C), i.e. the dew point is
volume of air, temperature, pressure and at or below the freezing point. The excess
humidity. Condensation takes place: moisture is deposited in the form of minute
(i) when the temperature of the air ice crystals instead of water droplets. The
is reduced to dew point with its ideal conditions for the formation of white
volume remaining constant; frost are the same as those for the formation
(ii) when both the volume and the of dew, except that the air temperature
temperature are reduced; must be at or below the freezing point.
(iii) when moisture is added to the air Fog and Mist: When the temperature
through evaporation. However, of an air mass containing a large quantity
the most favourable condition for of water vapour falls all of a sudden,
condensation is the decrease in air condensation takes place within itself on
temperature. fine dust particles. So, the fog is a cloud
After condensation the water vapour with its base at or very near to the ground.
or the moisture in the atmosphere takes Because of the fog and mist, the visibility
one of the following forms - dew, frost, fog becomes poor to zero. In urban and
and clouds. Forms of condensation can be industrial centres smoke provides plenty of
classified on the basis of temperature and nuclei which help the formation of fog and
location. Condensation takes place when mist. Such a condition when fog is mixed
the dew point is lower than the freezing with smoke, is described as smog. The
point as well as higher than the freezing only difference between the mist and fog is
point. that mist contains more moisture than the
fog. In mist each nuceli contains a thicker

15
 Geography

layer of moisture. Mists are frequent over According to the shape and altitude, the
mountains as the rising warm air up the clouds are classified as Cirrus, Stratus,
slopes meets a cold surface. Fogs are drier Cumulus and Nimbus.
than mist and they are prevalent where Cirrus clouds are high clouds because
warm currents of air come in contact with they are formed above 5,000 metres above
cold currents. Fogs are mini clouds in sea level. They are naturally dry, consists
which condensation takes place around of ice crystals and never bring rainfall.
nuclei provided by the dust, smoke, and These clouds are long, fibrous, and curved,
the salt particles. with no tufts or curls at the ends. Stratus
Cloud: A cloud can be defined as clouds are low clouds because they are
a mass of small water droplets or ice formed within 2,000 metres above the sea
crystals formed by the condensation of
level. They have uniform base and look like
water vapour in the atmosphere. Clouds
a dark gray sheet. They may cause snow
are formed by very minute suspended
water particles present in the atmosphere. and drizzle.

16
 Geography

otherwise called as thunder clouds. They

Cumulo-nimbus clouds extend up to 12,000 metres high above
are formed. Water droplets
accumulate and fall as rain the sea level.
Sun
due to gravity Nimbus clouds are vertical clouds.
Air cools and condenses They are thick dark or gray or black clouds.
with height, forming clouds They cause continuous rainfall so they are
----------------------------------
Dew point known as storm or rain clouds.
Warmer air Rainfall:
rises
Solar radiation Rainfall may be defined as the water
heats water drops that fall from the clouds to the
lake earth. The mechanism of rainfall begins
from evaporation then it continues as
Conventional Rainfall condensation at considerable heights.

Relief or Orographic Rainfall

Later on, the clouds are formed which

Cumulus clouds are often described
may cause rainfall. The rainfall types are
as “puffy” or “cotton-like” in appearance
classified into three as : Convectional,
which are medium clouds. Cumulus
Relief or Orographical and cyclonic.
clouds may appear alone, in lines or in
Since the equatorial regions receive
clusters. These clouds are associated with
vertical sunrays they become hot, so that
rainfall, lightning and thunder. They are
the hot air expands and rises vertically

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 Geography

upwards. As the temperature reduces INDIAN CLIMATE

gradually, the air gets cooled and forms
clouds. When the clouds reach the dew India has ‘Monsoon’ type of climate.
point, they cause rainfall. This is known The word monsoon has been derived from
as the convectional rainfall. This type of the Arabic word ‘mausim’ which means
rainfall is accompanied with thunder and seasonal reversal of the winds during the
lightning. Usually, it occurs around 4O course of the year. This implies a rhythmic
clock, hence, it is called 4’O clock rainfall. change in the direction of winds and in the
The winds that blow from the sea contain distribution of temperature and rainfall
a lot of moisture. When the moisture laden with the change of season.
winds from sea climbs the hills across the Factors Determining the Climate
paths, the winds become cool causing
of India:
heavy rainfall on the windward side. This
India’s climate is controlled by a number
is called as orographic rainfall. Then these
of factors.
winds descend on the lee ward side of the
1. Latitude: The mainland of India
mountains and cause low to no rainfall
extends roughly from 8oN to 37oN
The warm air from the hot area is further
latitude and the Tropic of Cancer
heated and moves upward. Hence, a low
(23½oN) passes through the middle
pressure area is developed and attracts
of the country. Areas lying in the
air from the adjacent high pressure areas.
north of Tropic of Cancer are in
Due to Earth’s rotation, the wind gets
sub-tropical and temperate zone
deflected and a circular motion of wind
while those lying in the south of this
develops. The air rises upward in the form
line fall in the tropical zone. There
of a funnel. The rising air gets cooled and
is a gradual fall in temperature as
condensation takes place. This brings
we move from south to north. The
heavy rainfall in the low pressure centres.
tropical zone is nearer to the equator
This is called as cyclonic rainfall. Example
and experiences high temperature
during October, November and December,
throughout the year.
the Northeast Monsoon season period,
2. The Himalayan Mountains :
there are a number of cyclones caused
The Himalayan mountains along
along the coast of Tamil Nadu, Andhra
with its extensions in the north-west
Pradesh and Orissa.
and north-east act as a very effective
climate divide. It saves the Indian
subcontinent from the cold and chilly
winds originating near the Arctic

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 Geography

Circle and blowing across central and distribution of rainfall. The

and eastern Asia. The Himalayan windward sides of Western Ghats
wall also traps the monsoon winds and Assam receive high rainfall
from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian during June-September whereas
Sea and cause widespread rainfall the southern plateau remains dry
in the sub-continent. due to its leeward situation along
3. Distribution of Land and Water: the Western Ghats.
India is flanked by the Indian Ocean a) Winter Season: Indian weather in
on three sides in the south and the winter season is generally influenced
girdled by a high and continuous by the presence of high atmospheric
mountain wall in the north. pressure in Central and West Asia. This
4. Distance from Sea: As mentioned causes the flow of surface winds from the
above, landmasses heat up and cool north to the Indian sub-continent. These
down more quickly than water. As winds form a dry continental air-mass.
such coastal areas enjoy equable This air mass comes in contact with the
climate while areas located in the Indian trade winds.
interior i.e.,far away from the sea b) Summer Season
experience extremes of climate. i. With the onset of summer season,
5. Altitude: There is a gradual fall of the sun shifts towards the north
temperature with increasing altitude and there is a complete reversal
at an average rate of 10C for 165 of pressure conditions and wind
metres (or 0.650C per 100 metres). circulation both in the lower and the
Consequently places located in upper layers of the atmosphere.
mountains are cooler than places ii. With the northwards shift of the
located in plains. For example, Agra ITCZ, the westerly jet stream
and Darjiling are located on the withdraws from the Indian plain.
same latitude, but temperature of This low pressure ITCZ, attracts
January in Agra is 160C whereas it winds from different directions.
is only 40C in Darjiling. The maritime tropical air (MT) from
6. Relief: India has great southern hemisphere rushes to this
physiographic variations including low pressure zone after crossing the
lofty mountains, vast plains and equator between 400 and 600 east
extensive plateaus. These aspects longitudes. This is known as the
of relief have a great bearing on south-west monsoon.
temperature, air pressure, direction iii. The Retreat of the Monsoon.
and speed of wind and amount The south-west monsoon starts

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 Geography

retreating by 1st September from El Nino has a great impact on the

the western strip of Rajasthan and, Indian monsoon and is used in India for
by 15th September, it retreats from forecasting long range monsoon rainfall.
most parts of Punjab, Haryana, Meteorologists believe that the severe
Rajasthan and Gujarat. It retreats drought of 1987 was caused by El Nino. In
1990-91, there was a wild El-Nino event
from most parts of India by mid-
and the onset of southwest monsoon was
October, except the southern
delayed over most parts of the country
peninsula. The retreating monsoon
ranging from five to twelve days.
picks up moisture from the Bay of
Bengal and establishes itself over La Nina
Tamilnadu coast in the month After El Nino, weather conditions return
of December and causes rainfall to normal. However, sometimes trade
there. winds become so strong that they cause
abnormal accumulation of cold water in
El-Nino and the Indian Monsoon
the central and eastern Pacific region. This
El-Nino is a narrow warm current
event is called La Nina, which in effect
which appears off the coast of Peru in
is the complete opposition of El Nino. A
December. In Spanish, it means The
La Nino also marks an active hurricane
Child Christ because it appears around
season. But In India, the presence of La
Christmas. It is a temporary replacement
Nina portends exceptionally good news. It
of the cold Peruvian or Humbolt current
is the harbinger of heavy monsoon showers
which normally flows along the coast. It
in India.
appears once in every three to seven years
Southern Oscillation (S.O.) is the
and is responsible for wide spread floods
name ascribed to the curious phenomenon
and droughts in the tropical regions of
of sea saw pattern of meteorological
the world. Sometimes it becomes more
changes observed between the Pacific and
intense and increases the surface water
the Indian Oceans. It has been noticed
temperatures of the sea by 100C. This
that whenever the surface level pressure
warming of tropical Pacific water affects
is high over the Indian Ocean, there is low
the global pattern of pressure and wind
pressure over the Pacific Ocean and vice-
system including the monsoon winds in
versa. When the winter pressure is high
the Indian Ocean. The El Nino phenomena,
over the Pacific Ocean and low over the
which influence the Indian monsoon,
Indian Ocean, the south-west monsoons
reveals that when the surface temperature
in India tend to be stronger. In the reverse
goes up in the southern Pacific Ocean,
case, the monsoons are most likely to be
India receives deficient rainfall.
weaker.

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 Geography

Some Famous Local Storms of Hot evening thunderstorms in Bengal

Weather Season and Assam. Their notorious nature
i. Mango Shower, Towards the end can be understood from the local
of summer, there are pre-mensoon nomenclature of ‘Kalbaisakhi’, a
showers which are a common calamity of the month of Baisakh.
phenomena in Kerala and coastal These showers are useful for tea,
areas of Karnataka. Locally, they jute and rice cultivation. In Assam,
are known as mango showers since these storms are known as “Bardoli
they help in the early ripening of Chheerha”.
mangoes. iv. Loo. Hot, dry and oppressing winds
ii. Blossom Shower. With this shower blowing in the Northern plains
coffee flowers blossom in Kerala from Punjab to Bihar with higher
and nearby areas. intensity between Delhi and Patna.
iii. Nor Westers. These are dreaded

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