PHYS 221

Electromagnetism (1)
2nd semester 1446

Prof. Omar Abd-Elkader

Lecture 3
 Gauss’ Law
•Gauss’ Law can be used as an alternative procedure for calculating
electric fields.
•Gauss’ Law is based on the inverse-square behavior of the electric
force between point charges.
•It is convenient for calculating the electric field of highly symmetric
charge distributions.
•Gauss’ Law is important in understanding and verifying the
properties of conductors in electrostatic equilibrium.

Introduction
We will use a “charge density” to describe the distribution of charge.
This charge density will be different depending on the geometry

Symbol Name Unit

 Charge per length C/m
 Charge per area C/m 2
 Charge per volume C/m 3

Introduction
 Electric Flux
• Electric flux is the product of the magnitude of the electric field and the
surface area, A, perpendicular to the field

ΦE = EA

Section 24.1
 Electric Flux, General
• The electric flux is proportional to the
Area
• number of electric field lines
• penetrating some surface
• The field lines may make some
• angle θ with the perpendicular to the surface
• Then ΦE = EA cos θ
• The flux is a maximum
when the surface is
perpendicular to the field
• The flux is a minimum
(zero) when the surface is (parallel) to the field
•The electric flux is proportional to the
number of electric field lines
penetrating some surface.
•The field lines may make some angle θ
with the perpendicular to the surface.
•Then ΦE = EA cos θ Section 24.1
Electric Flux, Interpreting the Equation
•The flux is a maximum when the surface is
perpendicular to the field.
• θ = 0°
•The flux is zero when the surface is parallel to the
field.
• θ = 90°
•If the field varies over the surface, Φ = EA cos θ is
valid for only a small element of the area.

Section 24.1
Electric Flux, General
•In the more general case, look at a small area
element.
 E  E i  Ai cos θ i  E i   A i
•In general, this becomes
 E  lim
Ai  0
E i   Ai

E   E  dA
surface

• The surface integral means the

integral must be evaluated over the
surface in question.
•In general, the value of the flux will depend both on
the field pattern and on the surface.

Section 24.1
Electric Flux, Closed Surface
•Assume a closed surface

•The vectors A i point in different directions.

• At each point, they are
perpendicular to the surface.
• By convention, they point
outward.

Section 24.1
 Flux Through Closed Surface, cont.

•At (1), the field lines are crossing the surface from the inside to the
outside; θ < 90o, Φ is positive.
•At (2), the field lines graze surface; θ = 90o, Φ = 0
•At (3), the field lines are crossing the surface from the outside to the
inside;180o > θ > 90o, Φ is negative.
Section 24.1
Flux Through Closed Surface, final
•The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net number of
lines leaving the surface.
• This net number of lines is the number of lines leaving the surface minus the
number entering the surface.
•If En is the component of the field perpendicular to the surface, then

• The integral is over a closed surface. E   E  dA   E dA

n

Section 24.1
Flux Through a Cube, Example
•The field lines pass through two
surfaces perpendicularly and are
parallel to the other four surfaces.
•For face 1, E = -El 2
•For face 2, E = El 2
•For the other sides, E = 0
•Therefore, Etotal = 0

Section 24.1
Karl Friedrich Gauss
•1777 – 1855
•Made contributions in
• Electromagnetism
• Number theory
• Statistics
• Non-Euclidean geometry
• Cometary orbital
mechanics
• A founder of the German
Magnetic Union
• Studies the Earth’s
magnetic field
Section 24.2
 Gauss’s Law, Introduction
•Gauss’s law is an expression of the general relationship between the net
electric flux through a closed surface and the charge enclosed by the
surface.
• The closed surface is often called a Gaussian surface.
•Gauss’s law is of fundamental importance in the study of electric fields.

Section 24.2
Gauss’s Law – General
•A positive point charge, q, is located at the center of a
sphere of radius r.
•The magnitude of the electric field everywhere on the
surface of the sphere is
E = keq / r2

c   E . d A  E n dA   E dA cos 
c  E  dA
1 qin
c  ( ) (4 r 2 )
4 0 r 2
qin
c 
0 Section 24.2
 Gauss’s Law – General, cont.
•The field lines are directed radially outward and are perpendicular to
the surface at every point.    E  dA  E  dA
E

•This will be the net flux through the gaussian surface, the sphere of
radius r.
•We know E = keq/r2 and Asphere = 4πr2, q
 E  4πk e q 
εo

Section 24.2
Gauss’s Law – General, notes
•The net flux through any closed surface surrounding a point charge, q,
is given by q/εo and is independent of the shape of that surface.
•The net electric flux through a closed surface that surrounds no charge
is zero.
•Since the electric field due to many charges is the vector sum of the
electric fields produced by the individual charges, the flux through any
closed surface can be expressed as

 E  dA   E1  E2   dA
Section 24.2
Gaussian Surface, Example
•Closed surfaces of various
shapes can surround the
charge.   q
c
• Only S1 is spherical
•Verifies the net flux through
any closed surface
surrounding a point charge q
is given by q/o and is
independent of the shape of
the surface.
q
(c ) s1  (c ) s 2  (c ) s 3 
0
Section 24.2
 Gaussian Surface, Example 2

•The charge is outside the closed surface

with an arbitrary shape.
•Any field line entering the surface
leaves at another point.
•Verifies the electric flux through a
closed surface that surrounds no charge
is zero.

qin 0
c   0
0 0
Section 24.2
Gauss’s Law – Final •The mathematical form of
Gauss’s law states
q in
• qin is the net charge inside
E   E  dA  εo
the surface.
• E represents the electric field at
any point on the surface.
•E is the total electric field
and may have contributions
from charges both inside and
outside of the surface.
•Although Gauss’s law can, in
theory, be solved to find E for any
charge configuration, in practice it
is limited to symmetric situations.

Section 24.2
 Applying Gauss’s Law
•To use Gauss’s law, you want to choose a gaussian surface over which
the surface integral can be simplified and the electric field determined.
•Take advantage of symmetry.
•Remember, the gaussian surface is a surface you choose, it does not
have to coincide with a real surface.

Section 24.3
 Conditions for a Gaussian Surface
•Try to choose a surface that satisfies one or more of these
conditions:
• The value of the electric field can be argued from symmetry to be
constant over the surface.
• The dot product of E  d A can be expressed as a simple algebraic
product EdA because dA and E are parallel.
• The dot product is 0 because E and dA are perpendicular.
• The field is zero over the portion of the surface.
•If the charge distribution does not have sufficient symmetry
such that a Gaussian surface that satisfies these conditions
can be found, Gauss’ law is not useful for determining the
electric field for that charge distribution.

Section 24.3
Field Due to a Spherically Symmetric Charge
Distribution
•Select a sphere as the gaussian surface.
•For r >a

qin
E   E  dA   EdA  εo
Q Q
E  ke
4πε o r 2 r2

Section 24.3
Volume charge density  ، Total Charge Q •
Q

V
Q
a ) E  ke 2
, r a
r
4
b ) qin   V '   (  r 3 ), r a
3
q
  in
0
4 3
 r
qin 3 
E    r
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2
3 0
Q

4 3
r
3
Qr Q
E   ke r  E  0 as r  o
4 0 a 3
a 3

Fig 24-11, p.747

Spherically Symmetric, cont.
•Select a sphere as the gaussian surface, r < a.
•qin < Q
•qin = r (4/3πr3)

qin
E   E  dA   EdA  εo
qin Q
E  ke r
4πε o r 2 a3

Section 24.3
Spherically Symmetric Distribution, final
•Inside the sphere, E varies linearly with r
• E → 0 as r → 0
•The field outside the sphere is equivalent to that of a
point charge located at the center of the sphere.

Section 24.3
 r<a
r>a

Fig 24-13, p.748

Fig 24-13a, p.748
 Q
E  ke 2
, r a
r

Fig 24-13b, p.748

r a, qin  0  Ein  0

Fig 24-13c, p.748

Field at a Distance from a Line of Charge
•Select a cylindrical charge distribution .
• The cylinder has a radius of r and a
length
E
of ℓ.
• is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to the
surface at every point on the curved part of the
surface.
•Use Gauss’s law to find the field.
qin
E   E  dA   EdA  εo
λ
E  2πr 
εo
λ λ
E   2k e
2πε o r r
Section 24.3
Field Due to a Line of Charge, cont.
•The end view confirms the field is perpendicular to
the curved surface.
•The field through the ends of the cylinder is 0 since
the field is parallel to these surfaces.

Section 24.3
 Field Due to a Plane of Charge
• E
• must be perpendicular to the plane and
must have the same magnitude at all
points equidistant from the plane.
E

•Choose a small cylinder whose axis is

perpendicular to the plane for the
gaussian surface.
• is parallel to the curved surface and
there is no contribution to the surface
area from this curved part of the cylinder.
•The flux through each end of the
cylinder is EA and so the total flux is 2EA.

Section 24.3
Field Due to a Plane of Charge, final
•The total charge in the surface is σA.
•Applying Gauss’s law:
σA σ
 E  2EA  and E 
εo 2ε o

•Note, this does not depend on r.

•Therefore, the field is uniform everywhere.

Section 24.3
Properties of a Conductor in Electrostatic
Equilibrium
•When there is no net motion of charge within a conductor, the conductor is
said to be in electrostatic equilibrium.
•The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.
• Whether the conductor is solid or hollow
•If the conductor is isolated and carries a charge, the charge resides on its
surface.
•The electric field at a point just outside a charged conductor is
perpendicular to the surface and has a magnitude of σ/εo.
•  is the surface charge density at that point.
•On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface charge density is greatest at
locations where the radius of curvature is the smallest.

Section 24.4
 Property 1: Fieldinside = 0
•Consider a conducting slab in an
external field.
•If the field inside the conductor
were not zero, free electrons in the
conductor would experience an
electrical force.
•These electrons would accelerate.
•These electrons would not be in
equilibrium.
•Therefore, there cannot be a field
inside the conductor.
Section 24.4
Property 1: Fieldinside = 0, cont.
•Before the external field is applied, free electrons are distributed
throughout the conductor.
•When the external field is applied, the electrons redistribute until the
magnitude of the internal field equals the magnitude of the external field.
•There is a net field of zero inside the conductor.
•This redistribution takes about 10-16 s and can be considered instantaneous.
•If the conductor is hollow, the electric field inside the conductor is also zero.
• Either the points in the conductor or in the cavity within the conductor can be
considered.

Section 24.4
Property 2: Charge Resides on the Surface
•Choose a gaussian surface inside but close to the
actual surface.
•The electric field inside is zero (property 1).
•There is no net flux through the gaussian surface.
•Because the gaussian surface can be as close to the
actual surface as desired, there can be no charge
inside the surface.

Section 24.4
Property 2: Charge Resides on the Surface,
cont.
•Since no net charge can be inside the surface, any net charge must
reside on the surface.
•Gauss’s law does not indicate the distribution of these charges, only
that it must be on the surface of the conductor.

Section 24.4
 Property 3: Field’s Magnitude and
Direction
•Choose a cylinder as the gaussian
surface.
•The field must be perpendicular to
the surface.
E
• If there were a parallel component

• to , charges would experience a

force and accelerate along the
surface and it would not be in
equilibrium.

Section 24.4
Property 3: Field’s Magnitude and Direction,
cont.
•The net flux through the gaussian surface is through only the flat face
outside the conductor.
• The field here is perpendicular to the surface.
•Applying Gauss’s law
σA σ
 E  EA  and E 
εo εo

Section 24.4
Sphere and Shell Example
•Conceptualize
• Similar to the sphere example
• Now a charged sphere is
surrounded by a shell
• Note charges
•Categorize
• System has spherical symmetry
• Gauss’ Law can be applied

Section 24.4
Sphere and Shell Example, cont.
•Analyze
• Construct a Gaussian sphere
between the surface of the solid
sphere and the inner surface of
the shell.
• Region 2
• a<r<b
• Charge inside the surface is +Q

• The electric field lines must be

directed radially outward and be
constant in magnitude on the
Gaussian surface.

Section 24.4
Sphere and Shell Example, 3
•Analyze, cont.
• The electric field for each area can be calculated.
Q
E1  k e 3
r ( for r  a )
a
Q
E 2  k e 2 ( for a  r  b )
r
E 3  0 ( for b  r  c )
Q
E 4  ke ( for r  c )
r2

Section 24.4
Sphere and Shell Example
•Finalize
• Check the net charge.
• Think about other possible combinations.
• What if the sphere were conducting instead of insulating?

Section 24.4