Nuclear Radiation Detection and Instrumentation

(NSE 236)

SOLID-STATE DETECTORS

Professor Abi Farsoni

School of Nuclear Science and Engineering
Oregon State University

Solid-State Detectors 1
Semiconductor Radiation Detectors

• These detectors are operated based on the movement of electron/hole pairs

through a semiconductor material.

• Devices employing semiconductors as the detection medium became practically

available in the early 1960s.

• Early versions were called “crystal carriers” , but modern detectors are referred
as “semiconductor detectors” or “solid-state detectors”.

• Generally of a base material of silicon or germanium but compound materials are

also used

• Advantages: low ionization energy, superior energy resolution

• Disadvantages: low efficiency for high-energy gamma-rays, relatively

expensive, limited to fairly small sizes

Solid-State Detectors 2
Semiconductor Properties

• Lattice structure of crystalline materials allows for particular energy bands:

valence and conduction bands.
• The valence band corresponds to those outer-shell electrons that are bound to
specific lattice sites within the crystal.
• The conduction band represents electrons that are free to migrate through the
crystal
• In an insulator, the energy bands or gaps are large (>5 eV). In a semiconductor
(germanium) the energy bands are closer to ~1 eV

• In the absence of thermal excitation, all the

electrons in both insulators and
semiconductors are in the valence band. So,
there is no conductivity!
• Pure conductors (metals) have essentially no
band gap and, therefore, almost always have
free electrons. Band structure for electron energies in insulators
and semiconductors.

Solid-State Detectors 3
Semiconductor Properties

• When an electron gets “excited”, it is then free to move out of its specific bonding
site – this also creates a “hole”, thus the electron-hole pair
• Electrons move toward the positive potential and holes “move” toward the
negative potential – this is observed conductance
• Thermal energy can cause electrons to move into the conduction band
• In the absent of electric field, thermal electrons and holes are recombined and we
have an equilibrium concentration which is proportional to their formation rate
• The drift velocity of electrons and holes can be calculated as:

𝑣ℎ = 𝜇ℎ 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒 = 𝜇𝑒 𝜀 where:
𝜇ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝜀 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒

• At some point the saturation velocity is reached where further increase in electric
field doesn’t increase drift velocity
• The saturation velocity in these detectors is approximately 107 cm/sec

4
Solid-State Detectors
Semiconductor Properties

• Properties of intrinsic Silicon and Germanium

5
Solid-State Detectors
Effect of Impurities (Dopants): intrinsic semiconductors

• There are basically 5 versions of semiconductors: (1) intrinsic, (2) n-type,

(3) p-type, (4) compensated, and (5) heavily doped

1- Intrinsic Semiconductors

• An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure crystal (not practically achieved though)

• In the absence of ionizing radiation, all the electrons in the conduction band and
all the holes in the valence band would be caused by thermal excitation.
• The electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band have equal
densities:
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖
where 𝒏𝒊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒑𝒊 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦.

ni  pi  1.5 x1010 cm 3 in silicon

• At the room temperature:
 2.4 x1013 cm 3 in germanium

6
Solid-State Detectors
Effect of Impurities (Dopants): n-type semiconductors

2- n-type semiconductors

• The n-type semiconductors, using Si as an example, now Band structure of an n-type

semiconductor. Dark circles in
have a pentavalent added impurity (phosphorus, for
the conduction band are
example). electrons and light circles in the
valence band are holes. The
• Then, if there is a small concentration of P, it takes the image shows that the electrons
place of a silicon atom in the structure. are the majority charge carrier.

• Because it is pentavalent (from group V of Periodic Table), there is a left-over

electron which is very light bound; requiring very little energy to move it to the
conduction band, without leaving a hole in the valence band.

• This impurity is called a donor

impurity because it donates
electrons to the crystal (without
adding a hole).

• The “donor level” is very close to the

conduction band.
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Solid-State Detectors
Effect of Impurities (Dopants): n-type semiconductors

• In nearly all cases, the concentration of impurity, ND, is large compared with the
concentration of electrons expected in the intrinsic material, thus:

𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔 ≈ 𝑵𝑫 (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚)

• By having extra electrons, we increase the

recombination rate, but at “equilibrium”: 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑝𝑖
• So that we can calculate the density of electron/hole
pairs present at room temperature in the n-type
material.
Nomogram showing the relationship
between electron and hole density.
• If 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖 ≅ 1010 𝑐𝑚−3 in silicon,
and 𝑁𝐷 = 𝑛 = 1017 𝑐𝑚−3 , then: 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑝𝑖 = 1020 → 𝑝 ≅ 103 𝑐𝑚−3
• Now, the total # of charge carries is ~ 1017 𝑐𝑚−3 versus ~2x1010 𝑐𝑚−3 (intrinsic)

• In this type of material, charge movement is almost entirely dominated by

electron movement (because they outnumber the holes) – electrons then are
called the “majority carriers” and the holes are the “minority carriers”.
8
Solid-State Detectors
Effect of Impurities (Dopants): p-type semiconductors

3- p-type semiconductors
• With p-type semiconductors, it’s the same idea
except now we add an impurity that is trivalent
(from group III of Periodic Table), so that there is the Band structure of a p-type
absence of an electron (or the addition of a hole). semiconductor. Dark circles in
the conduction band are
• These “acceptor impurities” (boron for example) also electrons and light circles in the
valence band are holes. The
create a site in the forbidden gap, but at a level very image shows that the holes are
close to the valence band. the majority charge carrier
• Thermal excitation ensures that some
electrons will always be available to fill the
acceptor sites (because of low energy
required), but this leaves holes behind

• Thus a hole is left for every (approximately)

impurity atom added, so that,
𝒑 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 ≈ 𝑵𝑨 (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚)
• And again we can calculate the density of electron/hole pairs using:
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑝𝑖
Solid-State Detectors 9
Effect of Impurities (Dopants): compensated and heavily doped

4- Compensated Material

• If donor and acceptor impurities are present in a semiconductor in equal

concentration, the material is called “compensated”.
• Such material has some of the properties of an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor,
very hard to produce.
• At present, the only practical means for achieving compensation is through the
lithium ion drifting process.

5- Heavily Doped Material

• The heavily doped semiconductors are usually made in thin layers on the crystal
and essentially act to make electrical contact with high conductivity.

• The notation of 𝒏+ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒑+ refers to the heavily doped versions.

Solid-State Detectors 10
Ionizing Radiation in Semiconductors

• When radiation interacts in a semiconductor, the energy deposition always leads

to the creation of equal numbers of holes and electrons. This occurs in all kind of
semiconductors: intrinsic, p-type, or n-type.

• The doping levels typical in p- or n-type semiconductors are so low that these
atoms play no significant role in determining the interaction probabilities for
gamma rays.

• The quantity of interest is the average energy lost by the primary radiation to
create one electron-hole pair (ionization energy)

• Ionization energy (77 K): 3.76 eV in silicon and 2.96 eV in germanium, (~10
times less than a gas-filled detector ; and about 6 times less than NaI(Tl))

• Therefore, in semiconductor detectors, because less energy is required

to create an electron-hole pair, more charge carriers result in less
statistical fluctuations and better energy resolution.

Solid-State Detectors 11
Leakage Current

• Even in the absence of ionizing radiation, Si and Ge detectors show some finite
conductivity and therefore a leakage current is observed.
• Random fluctuations in the leakage current will tend to obscure the small signals
following an ionizing event and represent a significant source of noise.
• Resistivity 𝜌 of highest purity silicon is about 5x104 Ω-cm (CZT, 𝜌~5x109 Ω-cm).
• For a 1-mm-thick slab of this silicon with 1-cm2 surface area and fitted with ohmic
𝑙
contacts, the electrical resistance between faces would be 5,000 Ω (𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴) .

𝑉 500
• By applying 500 V: 𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 ≅ 𝑅 = 5000 = 0.1 𝐴 Leakage
Current
Si or Ge
• A typical peak pulse current generated from
ionizing radiation (with 105 charge carriers,
~300keV in Ge) is about 10-6 A.

• Si and Ge detectors are created by combining p- and n-type materials to form a

p-n junction (diode), this junction is necessary to keep leakage currents very low.

Solid-State Detectors 12
Semiconductors Junction
Depletion Region 𝜀
• A net negative space charge on the p
side and a positive space charge on h
e
the n side of the junction region is p n
created.

• The accumulated space charge creates Fixed negative charge Fixed positive charge
an electric field (𝜀) that diminishes
the tendency for further diffusion.

• The region over which the charge Forward Biasing

imbalance exists is called the 𝜀
“depletion region”.
h
p e n
• In Si or Ge detectors, voltage biasing is
not applied in the conventional sense
– i.e., in the direction you’d expect
(that is called “forward biasing”). High Leakage Current

• In the forward bias arrangement, all electrons and holes are caused to flow, thus
resulting in large currents (even with no radiation!)
Solid-State Detectors 13
Reverse Biasing
Reverse Biasing, no ionizing radiation
• With reverse biasing, the depletion region 𝜀
is enhanced.
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
p ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 n
• Under reverse biasing, it is the minority
carriers (holes on the n side and electrons
on the p side) that are attracted across the
junction, establishing very small current.
Very Low Leakage Current

• Therefore, the p-n junction serves as a

rectifying element.
Reverse Biasing, with ionizing radiation
Radiation 𝜀
• The reverse biased p-n junction makes an
attractive radiation detector because
charge carriers created within the h e
depletion region can be quickly collected. p n

• The width of the depletion region

represents the active volume of the
detector. Current Pulse proportional to energy deposited

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Solid-State Detectors
Reverse Biasing

• Because of the charges on either side of Reverse Biasing

the junction, there is a capacitance built Depletion region acts
up, which has the characteristics of a like a capacitor
charged capacitor.

• To ensure good energy resolution, we

want this capacitance to be minimal – this Depletion
is promoted by having as large an applied p Region n
voltage as possible (limited by
breakdown voltage). Recall that in a
𝑨
capacitor 𝑪 = 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝒐 𝒅 , where “d” is the
separation between the plates

• The maximum operating voltage for any diode detector must be kept below the
breakdown voltage to avoid catastrophic deterioration of detector properties.

• Capacitance varies with applied voltage and other parameters, therefore a

charge-sensitive preamplifier should be used with semiconductor detectors.
𝑸
Recall 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑪 equation.
Solid-State Detectors 15
Pulse Formation

• With an electric field applied, both charges feel electrostatic forces that cause
them to drift in opposite directions.

• The motion of either the electrons or holes constitutes a current that will persist
until those carriers are collected at the boundaries (Shockley-Ramo Theorem).

• Because of differences in drift distance and carrier mobility's, one of the two
currents will persist for a longer time than the other.
Electron and hole mobility in Si
• In silicon or germanium, the hole mobility is
with in a factor of about 2 or 3 of the electron
mobility, so detectors made from these
crystals rely on complete integration of the
current due to both the electrons and holes.

• In gas detectors, the collection time for

positive ions is greater by orders of
magnitude than for the electrons, so the ion
motion does not contribute to the output
pulse.
Solid-State Detectors 16
Creating a junction
Diffused junction
• The junction is generally formed in a single 1
p
crystal by changing the impurities from one side
to the other.
Donor
• Start with homogeneous material (p-type for Impurity p 2
(vapor)
example) and then diffuse (vapor) n-type into
one side of the crystal, enough to overcome the
holes in that side. n p 3

• Junction formed, but near surface (n-type) is

essentially “dead” or a “window” through which
the radiation must penetrate to get to the
depleted region.

• Dead layer includes the electrode and an unknown thickness of crystal beneath
the electrode in which charge collection is insufficient.

• In charged particle spectroscopy, this dead layer (~ 1-2 µm) can be a real
disadvantage because a portion of the particle energy will be lost before it can
reach the active region of the detector.
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Solid-State Detectors
Creating a junction

Surface barrier n 1

• To avoid (or minimize) the dead layer of diffused

Electron
junctions, the surface barrier is used. traps n 2
(Au, Al)

• This detector is made by taking an n-type (or p-type)

crystal and applying a large density of electron traps at
the surface to form the p-n junction. p n 3

• The trap material is usually gold or aluminum and can

be placed in a very thin layer.

• Most commonly used for alpha spectroscopy (some

beta).

• Surface barrier detectors (most common) are typically

1-5 cm2 in area with depletion depths of about 1 mm.
Surface barrier detector
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Solid-State Detectors
Creating a junction
Surface Barrier
Surface barrier Detectors

• The spectrum for these detectors can be very simple

for charged particles – if the depletion depth is
greater than the particle range, it is simply the full-
energy peak because of no competing processes
Vacuum chamber
• A 5 MeV alpha has a range of ~18 𝜇𝑚 in silicon.

• Typical resolution is about 3-4% for alpha particles in a surface barrier and the
spectra look something like this:
18 𝜇𝑚
Count

α (5 MeV) Range

Si
E

• The sharp drop at the “rated” energy of the alpha – tail to the left indicating self
absorption, loss in air, or some from the dead layer though very thin.
19
Solid-State Detectors
Silicone p-i-n Diodes
Silicon PIN Detector
• Even though silicon has a relatively low atomic Pure silicon
p (intrinsic) n
number (Z=14), photoelectric absorption is still
predominant in the soft X-ray region below 20
keV (to measure florescence X-rays).

• In silicon p-i-n detectors (PIN), a high resistivity

intrinsic-region (“i”) is provided with p and n
contacts at either surface to reduce the leakage
current and provide a larger depletion region.

• A typical thickness of 300 𝜇𝑚 is sufficient to

provide useful detection efficiency up to 30 keV.

• The relatively small number of charge carriers,

requires that the noise be reduced to an absolute
minimum.

• For this reason, these diodes are often cooled to

about -55oC, using compact thermoelectric cooler.
20
Solid-State Detectors
Germanium Detectors

• Unlike the thin depletion depths necessary for alpha (or X-ray) spectroscopy, a
detector with a very large thickness is needed for high-energy gamma
spectroscopy

• Using germanium or silicon of normal semiconductor purity, depletion depths

beyond 2 or 3 mm are difficult to achieve despite bias voltages near the
breakdown level

• Large depletion depths (>1 cm) can be achieved with high purity germanium by
reducing impurity concentration to 1010 atoms/cm3

• Thickness of the depletion region (d):

1/2
2𝜀𝑉
𝑑=
𝑒𝑁

𝑉 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑁 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝜀 = 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
21
Solid-State Detectors
Germanium Detectors

• The fundamental goal in gamma spectroscopy devices is to create them with

ultra pure methods (to get greater depletion regions):

• Zone refining (HPGe): locally heating and slowly passing a melted zone, since
impurities tend to be more soluble in the molten germanium than in the solid.

o High-purity germanium (HPGe) is basically a

pure germanium crystal (example: p-type) with
an n+ contact of lithium or accelerated ions and
a p+ contact of acceptor atoms similarly placed.
o Overvoltage in an HPGe is preferable (thousands
of volts)
o Cooled down to 77oK using liquid nitrogen (to
reduce thermal noise)

• Lithium Drifting (Ge(Li)): alternatively a material can be doped with atoms

opposite to those of the impurities, thus making a virtually pure crystal.
o Needs to be cooled all the time, even when it is not powered.
o Manufacturers have discontinued Ge(Li) in favor of HPGe.
22
Solid-State Detectors
HPGe Detectors: Energy Resolution

The overall energy resolution (𝑊𝑇 ) achieved in

germanium system is determined by three factors:

𝑊𝑇 2 = 𝑊𝐷 2 + 𝑊𝑋 2 + 𝑊𝐸 2

• 𝑾𝑫 : 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠

𝑊𝐷 2 = (2.35)2 𝐹𝜖𝐸

where, F is Fano Factor (~0.08), 𝜖 is ionization

energy (~2.96 eV), and 𝐸 is incident photon energy

• 𝑾𝑿 : 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• 𝑾𝑬 : 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

• Example: for 1.333 MeV (60Co), 𝑊𝐷 = 1.32 𝑘𝑒𝑉, a

typical small coaxial germanium detector has a best
FWHM of about 1.7 keV (@1.333 MeV)
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Solid-State Detectors
HPGe Detectors: Detection Efficiency

Fractions of the full-energy peak

contributed by different energy
loss mechanisms in a 6 cm x 6 cm
coaxial HPGe detector

General dependence of intrinsic full-

energy peak efficiency on photon energy
for a number of common detectors

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Solid-State Detectors
 Solid-State Detectors

Room-Temperature (Compound) Detectors

• Room-Temperature operation, requires that the semiconductor band

gap energy be appropriately large (>~1.3 eV) to reduce thermally
generated leakage currents.
• High-resolution spectroscopy requires a small band gap energy to
ensure a low average ionization energy
• Semiconductors for efficient gamma spectroscopy should be composed
of high Z materials

25
 Properties of some Semiconductor Materials

Material Z Density Band Ionization Mobility Lifetime Best Energy

(g/cm3) Gap Energy (cm2/V.s) (s) Resolution
(eV) (eV/e-h pair) elec. hole elec . hole (keV)
Si (300 K) 14 2.33 1.12 3.61 1450 450 >10-4 >10-4 -
Si (77) 1.16 3.76 21,000 11,000 0.55 @ 122 keV

Ge (77) 32 5.33 0.72 2.98 36,000 42,000 >10-4 >10-4 0.4 @ 122 keV
0.9 @ 662 keV

CdTe (300 K) 48/52 6.06 1.52 4.43 1000 80 10-6 10-6 3.5 @ 122 keV

HgI2 (300 K) 80/53 6.4 2.13 4.3 100 4 7x10-6 3x10-6 3.2 @ 122 keV
5.96 @ 662 keV

CdZnTe (300 K) 48/30/52 6 1.64 5.0 1350 120 10-6 2x10-6 11.6 @ 662 keV

~5 @ 662 keV
with pixelated

Also called “Compound Semiconductors” or “Room-temperature Semiconductor” detectors

Solid-State Detectors 26
 Solid-State Detectors

General Operation of Planar Devices

• Planar geometry devices are the most common configuration for

compound semiconductors
• Compound semiconductors have very high inherent resistivity (CZT,
𝜌~5x109 Ω-cm), so there is no need for creating a rectifying p-n junction.
Recall that the resistivity of highest purity silicon is about 5x104 Ω-cm.
• Electron-hole pairs excited within the semiconductor by ionizing
radiation are separated by the electric field and swept to their respective
electrodes
Gamma-Ray No rectifying p-n junction!

C A C A

Electron-hole pairs Electron-hole pair

created V+ separated by electric field V+
27
 Recall Shockley-Ramo Theorem
C A
• ∆𝑸, 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 :
∆𝑸 = −𝒒∆𝝋𝟎 = −𝒒[𝝋𝟎 𝒛𝒇 − 𝝋𝟎 (𝒛𝒊) ]

• 𝑧𝑖 is initial position of the charge q dzh dze

• 𝑧𝑓 is final position of the charge q V+
• 𝜑0 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑧 zi
• 𝜑0 𝑧 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 W

• The induced charge, ∆𝑸, on any electrode produced by q depends only on the
location of the moving charge and the configuration of the device
For a planar detector: 𝜑0 𝑧 = 𝑧 0≤𝑧≤1
𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔:
∆𝑄 = 𝑛𝑒0 1 − 𝑍 − 𝑛𝑒0 0 − 𝑍 = 𝒏𝒆𝟎

Electron Hole
contribution contribution
If charge cloud is formed at location Z
28
Image taken from: Zhon He, Nucl. Ins. Meth. Phy. A, 463 , 2001 Farsoni, NSE 536: Solid-State Detectors
Shockley-Ramo Theorem

• But in room-temperature detectors when holes can only move very short
distance compared to the detector thickness (or can not be collected
completely) , the induced charge on the anode is:
Recall pulse formation in semiconductors

∆𝑄~ 𝑛𝑒0 1 − 𝑍
Which is depth dependent!

• If gamma-rays interact with detector material at all depths randomly, the

induced charge would vary from zero to 𝑛𝑒0 .

• No spectroscopic information can be obtained under these conditions

Farsoni, NSE 536: Solid-State Detectors 29

Single Carrier Semiconductor Detectors

• The energy resolution of compound semiconductors can be improved when

techniques are applied that eliminate the sensitivity of the induced charge to
the slow hole motion.
• These single carrier configurations employ specialized shapes or electrodes
to accomplish a circumstance in which the induced charge derives primarily
only from the motion of electrons.

• Common single carrier detector configurations:

• Frisch-Grid
• Coplanar-Grid
• Pixelated

Solid-State Detectors 30
 Solid-State Detectors

Frisch-Grid Detectors

• Simply wrapping the crystal (on side surface)

with a layer of copper, makes the
semiconductor insensitive to the hole
movement. This inexpensive configuration
converts a planar semiconductor to a single
carrier detector.

• 1.4% resolution (662 keV) was obtained with

a 3.4 x 3.4 x 5.7 mm CdZnTe.

31
Images taken from: Yonggang Cui et al., IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NUCLEAR SCIENCE, VOL. 55, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2008
 Frisch-Grid Detector Array

• Small Frisch-Grid detectors can be

assembled together to build more
efficient detectors. With the same
detection volume, these detectors
cost much less than a detector with
a single-crystal

Images taken from: Yonggang Cui et al., IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NUCLEAR SCIENCE, VOL. 55, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2008
32
Solid-State Detectors
Coplanar-Grid Detectors

• In detectors with coplanar anode

design, a symmetric pattern of
two interconnected anodes is
employed to eliminate the hole
contribution. This converts the
semiconductor to a single-
carrier detector.

• 1.65% resolution (662 keV) was

obtained with a 15 x 15 x 10 mm
coplanar CdZnTe detector. (1.9%)

Image taken from: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,

http://sensors.lbl.gov/sn_semi.html

33
Solid-State Detectors
Pixelated Detectors, a Position Sensitive Device

• Like coplanar-grid detectors, pixelated detectors are single charge carrier

devices (independent of the hole movement).

• The lateral coordinates (X and Y) of gamma-ray interaction are obtained

from the location of the pixelated anodes.

• The depth (Z) is obtained from the ratio of the signals coming from the
cathode and the anode.

• Energy Resolution: <1.0% FWHM at 662 keV (<2.0 cm3 CdZnTe)

• Position Resolution: 1-2 mm in X-Y and 0.5 mm in Z.

Solid-State Detectors 34
 Pixelated Detectors, Gamma-Ray Imaging
• Incoming gamma rays interact with the detector through Compton
scattering.
511 511 E: energy of incident photon (keV)
cos 𝜃 = 1 − + E’: energy of scattered photon (keV)
𝐸′ 𝐸
(a)The energies and positions of the first two interactions define a cone
of incident angles.
(b)The cones can be projected onto a plane (one circle per gamma-ray
event) to produce a two-dimensional image of the source.

E
(c) After repeating the
back-projections of many
events, the overlap of 𝜃
the cones indicates the
source position.
E’

Image taken from: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, https://www.llnl.gov/str/May06/Fabris.html

35
Solid-State Detectors
Pixelated Detectors, Gamma-Ray Imaging

Overlap of the cones indicates the source position

Solid-State Detectors 36
Pixelated Detectors, Gamma-Ray Imaging

Polaris-H, a 3D-position-sensitive
CdZnTe detector
(from H3D company)

Solid-State Detectors 37