Recent Advances of Internal

Cooling Techniques for Gas

Minking K. Chyu1
Turbine Airfoils
e-mail: mkchyu@pitt.edu The performance goal of modern gas turbine engines, both land-base and air-breathing
engines, can be achieved by increasing the turbine inlet temperature (TIT). The level of
Sin Chien Siw TIT in the near future can reach as high as 1700  C for utility turbines and over 1900  C
for advanced military engines. Advanced and innovative cooling techniques become one
Department of Mechanical Engineering and of the crucial major elements supporting the development of modern gas turbines, both
Materials Science, land-based and air-breathing engines with continual increment of turbine inlet tempera-
University of Pittsburgh, ture (TIT) in order to meet higher energy demand and efficiency. This paper discusses
Pittsburgh, PA 15261 state-of-the-art airfoil cooling techniques that are mainly applicable in the mainbody and
trailing edge section of turbine airfoil. Potential internal cooling designs for near-term
applications based on current manufacturing capabilities are identified. A literature sur-
vey focusing primarily on the past four to five years has also been performed.
[DOI: 10.1115/1.4023829]

Keywords: mainbody, trailing edge, pin-fins, rib-turbulators, heat transfer coefficient,

internal cooling

Introduction at the university level to combat the thermal issues associated in

the with gas turbine systems. These three different areas mainly
Gas turbines are the prime mover in critical industries such as
focused on (1) advances in substrate materials with increased tem-
power generation, oil and gas, processing plants, and aircraft pro-
perature tolerances, (2) improvements in cooling technology, and
pulsion. Based on the application and power rating, gas turbines
(3) development of specialized protective coatings [5]. Advance-
can generally be divided into three major categories: (1) military
ment in these technologies defined the thermal management capa-
and commercial airline engine turbines, (2) power generation tur-
bilities and limitations of today’s gas turbine systems.
bines for utilities, and (3) marine and industrial turbines for the
Gas turbine cooling technology is rather complex and varies
supply of shaft power, process fluid, or electricity to specific
depending on the thermal load characteristics and geometry of the
applications. From the basic turbine cycle efficiency standpoint,
airfoil. These may also vary for different engines and engine man-
the overall turbine efficiency is largely proportional to the turbine
ufacturers. Generally, an airfoil can be categorized into five major
inlet temperature. Based upon this notion, the turbine inlet tem-
sections according to the thermal load and flow conditions: (1)
perature is increased significantly by approximately three fold
leading edge, (2) main body, (3) trailing edge, (4) endwall or plat-
since the past few decades in order to meet the higher demand in
form, and (5) tip-turn [5].
efficiency and power output [1]. However, greater cooling per-
Figure 2 illustrates the typical cooling techniques at the five
formance and innovative cooling strategies are crucial in order to
major internal cooling zones with designated film cooling holes at
ensure the durability and reliability of the turbine components
the leading edge, trailing edge, mainbody, tip turn region and plat-
while pursuing the ultimate goal of achieving higher turbine effi-
form of the airfoil [6]. Due to direct impingement of the hot com-
ciency. Thermal management is achieved using internal cooling
bustion gases, the leading edge has the highest thermal loads [7].
and external cooling techniques together with thermal barrier
Therefore, the leading edge requires rather high cooling demand
coatings that increase the resistivity of the metal substrate on the
and is typically cooled by jet impingement with film cooling,
hot combustion gases. Air is generally used as cooling media,
often termed as “showerhead film cooling.” The mainbody, a
which is drawn (bleed air) from various stages in the compressor.
relatively thick section which consists of the largest section, con-
For turbine power generation systems, as steam inherits much
nects the leading edge and trailing edge and is usually cooled by
higher specific heat capacity than that of air, and therefore, it is
serpentine passages with internal surface roughness, such as pin-
preferable to use steam as cooling media in both closed loop and
fins and rib-turbulators. The trailing edge, which is known to be
open loop configurations. However, one of the main disadvan-
the thinnest section of an airfoil, is typically cooled by pin-fins
tages of steam is that steam is more corrosive than air and may
with trailing edge ejection.
leads to oxidation.
Internal cooling is achieved by bleeding a portion of the com-
Figure 1 illustrates the projected advanced turbine operating
pressed air from the compressor stage and directing it through the
conditions for three different advanced land-based turbines [2–4].
hub prior to distributing it to designated cooling passages. Con-
Note that, in order to meet the performance goal mandated by the
ventional cooling passages are located at the central region of the
U.S. fossil energy policy, the future coal-gas turbines could have
airfoil and travel through several turns, which formed a ‘serpen-
a turbine inlet temperature (TIT) over 1750  C as shown in Fig. 1.
tine’ like channel before exiting through the film cooling holes.
The thermal load induced by the elevated TIT alone will lead to
Current state-of-the-art cooling approaches were patented by sev-
great challenges to turbine designers for the development of these
eral gas turbine manufacturers with the so-called ‘double-wall’
future systems. Continuous research and development, focused on
cooling to have a secondary set of smaller cooling passages within
three main areas, is conducted by gas turbine manufacturers and
the airfoil, positioned closer to the outer wall. Figure 3 illustrates
the double wall cooling concept filed by different turbine airfoil
1
Corresponding author.
manufacturers [8–11]. Given that these cooling channels are posi-
Manuscript received November 5, 2012; final manuscript received February 5, tioned closer to the outer wall and with the presence of pin-fins as
2013; published online May 17, 2013. Assoc. Editor: Srinath V. Ekkad. three-dimensional vortex generators rather than the two-

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 metal deposition. The approach of having many small cooling
channels near external surfaces of an airfoil has potential benefits,
however, it may have associated risks like dirt-plugging, structural
integrity, cost, and manufacturing tolerances. The use of a double-
wall cooling approach may require an outer wall thickness of
approximately 0.5 mm and an inner wall thickness of 1.0 mm in
order to maintain the airfoil weight at or below material strength
limits [15]. The resulting exterior cooling passages may be
between 0.25 to 1.5 mm, which would require the pin-fins compa-
rable diameter. Having these smaller pin-fins in the outer channel
not only poses a great challenge for turbine manufacturers, but
also raises a major concern on the structural integrity due to
greater thermal stress. Figure 5 highlights the path for higher over-
all cooling effectiveness from conventional to supercooling to
microcircuit cooling [16]. In addition, to greater cooling capacity,
these advanced cooling techniques can reduce the temperature of
the airfoil, but with better uniformity. Figure 6 illustrates the local
heat transfer distribution on the jet impinged surface and all par-
ticipating pin-fin surfaces, along with a CFD simulated flowfield
[17]. The region subjected to impingement experiences extremely
high heat transfer (shown in white color). The overall level of heat
transfer in the pin-fin array is substantially enhanced due mainly
to impingement induced mixing and sharp flow turning.
Several recent publications related to the state-of-the-art turbine
Fig. 1 Projected coal-gas turbine operating parameters [2–4] airfoils and heat transfer have been published in the past few
years. A symposium volume that discussed the heat transfer in gas
turbine systems was recently edited by Goldstein [18]. A detailed
dimensional rib-turbulators, these cooling passages exhibit superb review of convective heat transfer and aerodynamics in axial flow
heat removal capabilities. In addition, these cooling channels also turbines was published by Dunn [19]. Recent publications that
formed a highly distributed coverage region across the airfoil pro- addressed the turbine airfoil internal cooling was published by
vide better uniformity in heat transfer, which resulted in lower in- Chyu [5] and Han and Huh [6]. Overall, from the turbine stand-
plane thermal gradients. The most notable developments of point, it is desirable to reduce the coolant consumption as this
double-wall cooling in the gas turbine airfoil known by trade approach will ultimately lead to higher efficiency for the entire
names of Lamilloy and Cast Cool are presented in Fig. 4 [12]. The turbine system. However, any cooling techniques introduced into
cooling channels in Lamilloy are formed as two or more sheet the design shall consider the thermal stresses and/or combined
metal bonded together with distributed pin-fins, while those of stresses, which do not exceed the allowable limits of the materials.
CastCool are formed through investment casting [13]. Battisti In addition, airfoil cooling still relies on heat load reducing coat-
et al. [14] described another form of micro cooling channel fabri- ings, such as ceramic thermal barrier coatings (TBC) to combat
cation method using diffusion bonding formed by electro-galvanic the hot combustion gasses that may reach up to 1700  C. This

Fig. 2 Schematic of typical gas turbine airfoil with common cooling techniques [6]

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 Fig. 3 Airfoil with double-wall cooling [8–11]

paper is intended to provide an updated overview and discuss crit- turbulators’ geometry (i.e., rib size, shape, distribution, flow
ical needs of research in turbine internal cooling technologies attack-angle), rotation, and entrance effects.
with pin-fins, rib-turbulators, and dimples on nonrotating channels In some of the conventional internal cooling passages, rib-
employed to improve the cooling effectiveness. Potential internal turbulators that have two-dimensional structures are mainly used
cooling designs for gas turbines are identified. to cool the main body of an airfoil. Typically, rib height is about
5–10% of the entire cooling passage, rib spacing-to-height ratio
varying from 5 to 15, and rib flow attack angle around 30 deg–60 -
Internal Cooling Passages With Rib-Turbulators deg [21]. In general, smaller rib height is more efficient for higher
Turbulence promoters are introduced in the internal cooling Reynolds number flows, and the heat transfer enhancement
passages for heat transfer enhancements. The most common tur- decreases but the pressure drop penalty increases with Reynolds
bulence promoters are the so-called rib turbulators, which are typ- number. In some cases, smaller gas turbine airfoils may tend to
ically oriented at certain angles transverse to the flow direction have larger blockage ribs with 10–20% rib height-to-hydraulic
and form an integral part of the airfoil inner wall. The majority of
the work related to rib-turbulators in the past decades was docu-
mented by Han et al. [1,20,21], addressing the effects of rib-

Fig. 5 Durability map illustrating the path for higher cooling

R
Fig. 4 Generic LamilloyV cooling [12] effectiveness [16]

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 Fig. 6 Local heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K) and CFD simulated streakline in a double-wall cooling channel, channel’s
Reynolds number 5 8000 [17]

diameter ratio at closer spacing as reported by Taslim and Wads- Depending on differences in design and flow conditions, typical
worth [22] and Taslim and Lengkong [23,24]. rib-turbulators can promote approximately 2.0 to 3.5 fold heat
There are various rib configurations that have been explored by transfer enhancement, with a 6 to 10 times pressure loss, as com-
numerous groups of researchers by numerical and experimental pared to their smooth wall counterparts. Such cooling
approach. Figure 7 illustrates some of the advanced rib-
turbulators that are explored in the gas turbine community. Over-
all, from the heat transfer performance stand point, the W and
V-shaped ribs remain the best candidates among all rib-
turbulators. In the experimental study using the high aspect ratio
channel, which also involves rotational effects, Wright et al. [25]
suggested that the discrete W-shaped and discrete V-shaped ribs
are proved to have the greatest overall performance, while the
more typical angled ribs performed the worst. The same agreement
is found in one of the recent experimental study by Alkhamis et al.
[26] under high Reynolds number (Re ¼ 30,000–400,000) that is
within the realistic turbine conditions. Their findings concluded that
not only the V-shaped rib has superior heat transfer enhancement,
but also higher thermal performance than that of 45-deg angled
ribs. Numerous other studies have shown the same conclusion that
V-shaped ribs perform better than the traditional angled ribs in a
variety of channels and flow conditions [27–30].
Due to certain manufacturing limitations and constraints, the
actual ribs in the internal cooling passages will not have sharp
angles at the edges, but instead, rounded corners. Lockett and Col-
lins [31] investigated the heat transfer distribution and associated
hot spots around square and rounded rib geometries. As the
rounded rib has a more streamlined shape, this has resulted in a
sharp decrease of heat transfer at the rear of the square rib. Han
et al. [32] conducted a similar study and concluded that the square
and rounded rib has no effects towards the heat transfer character-
istics at higher Reynolds number where the flow is in the com-
pletely turbulent regime. Chandra et al. [33] investigated the
effect of rib shape on the heat transfer and pressure loss in the
square channel. They concluded that, for a given friction factor,
heat transfer performance is comparable among the tested rib geo-
metries (triangular, slant-edged ribs, circular, and semicircular
ribs) except the square rib, which exhibits the highest heat transfer
enhancement. The latest findings of rib-turbulated channels with
various rib geometries were reported by Ahn [34]. Contrary to the
previous works, the key findings suggested that the triangular-
shaped rib has the highest heat transfer performance. More recent
experimental studies by Wang and Sunden [35] based on a square
channel with various-shaped ribs (square, equilateral-triangular,
trapezoidal with decreasing height, trapezoidal with increasing
height) shows disagreement with the conclusions reported by Ahn
[34]. Wang and Sunden found that the trapezoidal-shaped rib with
decreasing height in the flow direction has the highest heat trans-
fer performance while having the shortest reattachment length Fig. 7 Rib-turbulators for internal cooling passages in turbine
among all cases. airfoil [21]

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 single test until 1997, where Chyu et al. introduced a transient ex-
perimental approach based on hydrid liquid crystal technique [5].
Other than the typical circular pin-fin, more innovative pin-fin
geometries such as diamond and cubic shape are also considered
for internal cooling applications. Using the hybrid transient crystal
technique, Chyu et al. [43] examined the local heat transfer of
both the endwall and pin-fins using short diamond, cubic and cir-
cular pin-fin arrays with the ratio of pin-height-to-diameter, H/
D ¼ 1. The results concluded that both diamond and cubic pin-fins
have superior heat transfer than that of circular pin-fin. This is
Fig. 8 Local heat transfer coefficient distribution with diamond ultimately attributed to the sharp edges that promote higher vortex
shaped pin-fins [44] shedding that enhance the heat transfer at the downstream region.
However, this is accompanied with higher pressure losses that are
approximately 10–40% higher than that of circular pin-fin array.
enhancements are fairly straightforward for stationary airfoils, but Using an infrared thermography technique, Chang et al. [44] per-
become much more complicated in rotating blade channels due to formed a similar experimental study using a diamond shaped pin-
the effects of rotation, coolant velocity, and buoyancy, which may fin array with a rectangular channel under high rotation number.
result in strong secondary flows and even local flow reversal Only the heat transfer coefficient distribution on the endwall is
[36–39]. examined as the insulated pin-fins are heat transfer inactive. In
typical circular pin-fin arrays, as the peak heat transfer usually is
observed at the third or fourth row, the diamond shaped pin-fin
array show a somewhat remarkable trend. Figure 8 illustrates the
Internal Cooling Passages With Pin-Fins local heat transfer distribution on the endwall and revealed that
Higher heat transfer enhancement can be achieved by using the developing length in the diamond shaped pin-fin array is fur-
three-dimensional features, such as pin-fins, that have the capabil- ther extended up to the twelve row compared to the circular pin-
ity of generating greater vortices and turbulence mixing in the fin array.
channel. However, this is accompanied by higher pressure loss In the turbulent flow regime, the trailing region of any surface
compared to the internal cooling passages with rib-turbulators. In element, i.e., pin-fin, is redundant as the flow will experience sep-
addition, these pin elements have also served as bridging struc- aration due to unfavorable pressure gradients after the leading
tures between the pressure and suction sides of the turbine airfoils. region. Based on this notion, it will be feasible to explore the heat
The pin-fin height generally varies according to the channel’s ge- transfer performance of the pin-fin array with only half of the pin-
ometry and the height-to-diameter ratio; H/D may range from 0.5 fin element, i.e., leading region only. Therefore, Siw et al. [45]
up to 4.0. The earliest review findings of pin-fin arrays was performed a detailed experimental study using triangular and
reported by Armstrong and Winstanley [40]. Short pin-fin arrays semicircular pin-fin (Fig. 9), which is considered to be half of the
are typically used in the narrow channel, such as the trailing edge diamond and typical circular pin-fin element that is widely used in
region. Pin-fins, when used in the main body section of an airfoil, gas turbine cooling. It must be kept in mind that minimized
can have more flexibility for design renovation to further improve weight is one of the goals for rotating airfoil, since this ultimately
the level of heat transfer enhancement than the shorter pin-fin contributes to the overall efficiency of the entire turbine system.
arrays near the trailing edge section. Recent findings by Park et al. Therefore, having these partial shaped pin-fin elements are
[41] and Chyu et al. [42] are in agreement, concluding that for encouraging with two main distinctive reasons: (1) heat transfer
pins with a given diameter, increasing the pin height leads to a performance can be preserved, and (2) weight reduction of airfoil.
higher heat transfer, but is penalized by greater pressure loss. Figure 10 illustrates the local heat transfer coefficient distribution
Most of the literature involving pin-fin arrays are generally of both endwall and pin-fin at varying Reynolds number for
focused on either the endwall or pin-fin only [20,41]. Very little Case 1 presented in Fig. 9. The results are in agreement with
findings were reported for both endwall and pin-fin based on a Chang et al. [44] as the heat transfer developing region has

Fig. 9 Top view of test plate with different pin-fin configurations

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 Fig. 10 Local heat transfer coefficient distribution (case 1)

increased up to the ninth row compared to typical circular pin-fin. using longer pin-fins is mainly attributed to a greater heat transfer
The total averaged heat transfer enhancement of the triangular coefficient than the neighboring endwall, coupled with larger wet-
pin-fin array is approximately 4.0–5.0 within the tested Reynolds ted area from those pin-fins. In addition, the heat transfer perform-
number ranging from 10,000–25,000. However, this is penalized ance of longer pin-fin arrays increases more substantially with
by greater pressure loss, which is approximately 10–15% higher Reynolds number compared to those short pin-fin arrays.
than that of circular pin-fin array. To gain a better understanding of the heat transfer characteris-
Figures 11 and 12 illustrate the endwall and total heat transfer tics in pin-fins arrays, the flow field and physics requires great
enhancement of the triangular pin-fin arrays together with circular attentions. This is accomplished through commercially available
pin-fin array with H/D ¼ 4 and transverse and longitudinal pin CFD software and three-dimensional velocity measurement sys-
spacing, ST/D ¼ SL/D ¼ 2.5. The results are compared with the tems, such as the particle image velocimetry (PIV) and laser
findings reported by Metzger and Haley [46] and Chyu et al. [43] Doppler velocimetry (LDV). Initial studies were reported by
using short pin-fin array with H/D ¼ 1 and ST/D ¼ SL/D ¼ 2.5. Metzger and Haley [46] and Simoneau and VanFossen [47] who
Using longer pin-fins, the heat transfer enhancement is substantially measured the turbulence intensity through a pin-fin array with
higher than those of short pin-fin arrays by approximately two fold. hot-wire anemometry, which showed rough agreement with row-
The main reason contributing to higher heat transfer enhancement resolved heat transfer. In separate experiments, Ames et al. [48]

Fig. 11 Endwall heat transfer enhancement versus Re Fig. 12 Total heat transfer enhancement versus Re

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 successfully correlated the local heat transfer at the pin-fin stagna-
tion point with turbulence parameters obtained using hot-wire
anemometry. Recent experimental studies using time-resolved,
digital particle image velocimetry (TRDPIV), by Ostanek and
Thole [49] concluded that for a pin-fin array with pin height-to-
diameter, H/D < 2.0, changes in both spanwise and streamwise
inter-pin spacing has significant impact towards the near wake
flow and local heat transfer coefficients, while decreasing both
ST/D and SL/D will suppressed the vortex shedding and is com-
pensated by the increase in total effective heat transfer area on pin
surface. However, with larger ST/D and SL/D, the presence of vor-
tex shedding is only effective in the first row of pin-fins.

Internal Cooling Passages With Dimples (Concavities)

Other than using protruded surface features for heat transfer
enhancement, dimple, which caused a concavity on the surface, is
also being considered as one of the candidates for internal cooling. Fig. 14 Heat transfer enhancement versus Re with dimples
Generally, dimples may be formed in an infinite variation of geome-
tries with various resulting heat transfer and pressure loss character-
and V-shaped were later explored by Chyu et al. [60], Zhou and
istics. However, dimples within the array are particularly important
Acharya [61], and Jordan and Wright [62]. Overall, there appears
in limiting the friction loss with increasing Reynolds number.
to be no significant improvement in heat transfer enhancement by
For applications in gas turbine cooling, the key findings reported
having these innovative dimple geometries compared to the con-
by Nagoga [50] provide some insights into the effects of concavity
ventional hemispherical shaped dimples.
array geometric parameters, namely the channel height-to-dimple
Figure 14 illustrates the heat transfer enhancement of different
diameter ratio, inter dimple spacing, and dimple depth-to-diameter
dimple geometries reported by different researchers. Overall, all
ratio. Bunker and Donnellan [51] studied the heat transfer charac-
test cases exhibit the comparable heat transfer enhancement com-
teristics of dimpled surface arrays in circular channel with Re up to
pared to the rib-turbulators, ranging from approximately two to
90,000. The results showed that heat transfer enhancements for
three fold compared to smooth channel. The tear-drop shaped dim-
dimpled internal surfaces of circular passages can reach factors of 2
ple [60] has the highest heat transfer performance, ranging from
or more when the relative dimple depth is greater than 0.3 and the
approximately 2.5–2.7. The V-shaped dimples [62] appear to
dimple array density is about 0.5 or higher. The associated friction
increase heat transfer enhancement with Reynolds number, this
factor multipliers for such configurations are in the range of 4–6. A
opposite trend is different than other cases as shown in Fig. 14.
separate study by Kim et al. [52] at high Reynolds number
Further research efforts shall be conducted to explore the heat trans-
(26,000 < Re < 360,000) confirmed that dimples, which inherit sig-
fer characteristics of V-shaped dimples at higher Reynolds number.
nificant reduction in pressure drop, have superior thermal perform-
ance compared to jet impingement and rib-turbulators.
One significant advantage of dimpled surfaces is that the heat
transfer enhancement is only penalized by moderate frictional Internal Cooling Passages With Compound
losses compared to rib-turbulated channels. Besides that, dimples Surface Features
are also a desirable alternative to rib-turbulators due to the Although there have been numerous works done with these
decreased weight associated with the removal of surface material three key features, as summarized above, seldom are these
to the addition of material compared to rib-turbulators. Research research areas combined together in an attempt to further improve
efforts related to dimpulated surfaces have been focused on hemi- cooling effectiveness through synergistic effects [63]. Due to the
spherical dimples of different depth with other potential geometri- advancement in manufacturing techniques, innovative approaches
cal factors that may impact the heat transfer performance in the of producing compound surface roughness have become the fron-
internal cooling passage [53–59]. Figure 13 illustrates innovative tier of heat transfer enhancement in gas turbine airfoil cooling.
dimple geometries such as tear-drop, square, triangular, circular The approach of having two or more surface features involving
pin-fins, rib-turbulators, and dimples has received much attention
from various groups of research in the past several years. Other
than achieving significant wetted surface area for effective heat
transfer area, the combination of two or more surface enhance-
ment features allows turbine designers to have multiple design
solutions for heat transfer and pressure loss objectives. However,
as expected, this practice is usually penalized by the pressure loss
in the system. One of the gas turbine manufactures, General Elec-
tric, filed a patent in 2007 for introducing the innovative cooling
technique of combined pin-fins, dimples and rib-turbulators. Fig-
ure 15 illustrates an exemplary model of dimples combined with
either pin-fins or Chevron rib-turbulators [64].
Murata et al. [65] performed experimental and numerical stud-
ies on combined dimples, short pin-fins and rib-turbulators at low
Reynolds number ranging from 2000–10,000. As they employ the
infrared thermography technique in their experiments, that
required the presence of an infrared transparent window; only one
surface was roughened with dimples, short pin-fins, and ribs,
while the opposing surface is smooth. High heat transfer is
observed on the top surface of the rib-turbulator and also the lead-
Fig. 13 Different dimple geometries [60–62] ing edge of the pin-fin. The region around the dimple showed

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 Fig. 15 Innovative cooling configurations with mesh and dimple [64]

moderate heat transfer enhancement compared to the rib- Recently, Siw et al. [68] performed a detailed experimental
turbulator and pin-fin. A separate study by Lan et al. [66] explored study on the combination of detached pin-fin and rib-turbulator
several configurations, which involved a combination of dimples, arrays using the transient liquid crystal technique. Figure 16 illus-
rib-turbulators and hemisperical shaped protrusions, numerically trates the top view of the test section in their study which consists
using ANSYS FLUENT revealed similar conclusions with Murata of two newly proposed ribs, named as broken rib and full rib. The
et al. [65]. The simulation results concluded that the highest heat results of the local heat transfer coefficient distribution, illustrated
transfer enhancement is obtained using the rib-turbulators com- in Fig. 17, show the heat transfer along the rib-turbulators and the
bined with protrusions. These results concluded that higher heat region immediately behind the ribs is enhanced substantially,
transfer is observed using protrusions where the flow reattaches which contributed to greater convective heat transfer on the end-
and lower heat transfer is observed on the dimples where the recir- wall. Depending on the geometry and length of the rib-
culation occurs. The presence of hemispherical shaped protrusions turbulators, evidently, the presence of rib-turbulators has a great
has further enhanced the heat transfer by approximately 10%. impact towards the flow field on the endwall. In the full-rib case,
A separate study by Rao et al. [67] concluded that pin-fins with the horseshoe vortices are largely altered as the ribs are extended
dimples exhibit superior heat transfer performance compared to up to the base of the pin-fin whereas in the baseline (without ribs)
pin-fin arrays alone while producing lower pressure losses. The and broken rib cases, the horseshoe vortices are preserved.
presence of dimples in the pin-fin array has induced turbulence Detailed comparison revealed that the local heat transfer coeffi-
and mixing in the flow near the wall by producing multiple vortex cient on the endwall is enhanced substantially, by approximately
pairs periodically, which enhanced the turbulent flow heat transfer 20% to 50% compared to the neighboring pin-fin, while induced
from the endwall and the pin fins. As dimples tend to reduce the insignificant pressure loss to the entire domain.
hydrodynamic resistance in the flow domain, the pressure loss in Figure 18 illustrates the total heat transfer enhancement at vary-
the pin-fin and dimple arrays is ultimately dominated by the ing Reynolds number of the detached pin-fin arrays with broken
blockage and frictional drag induced by the pin-fins. Overall, the ribs and full ribs. The heat transfer enhancement of these pin-fin
pressure loss of the pin-fin and dimple arrays is approximately arrays range from approximately 3.0–3.7, except for the best case,
10–25% lower than that of pin-fin array. detached pin-fins, C/D ¼ 1. As depicted in Fig. 17, the presence of

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 Fig. 18 Total heat transfer enhancement of detached pin-fins
with broken rib and full rib [68]

observed in Fig. 19 by using pin-fins with both dimples and rib-

turbulators; the heat transfer enhancement appears to increase
with Reynolds number, which is somewhat an opposite trend
compared to most internal cooling studies involving pin-fins or
rib-turbulators [20,21,25,35]. This is a very substantial finding
Fig. 16 Schematic layout of detached pin-fin with broken rib and further detailed experimental and numerical studies shall be
and full rib performed to investigate such behavior.

ribs has a profound impact towards the heat transfer enhancement

on the endwall, but the results in Fig. 18 revealed a different trend. Internal Cooling Passages at the Trailing Edge
The pin-fin heat transfer has more dominating impact towards the The trailing edge region, which is known to be the thinnest sec-
overall heat transfer enhancement as pin-fins inherit higher heat tion of the airfoil, imposes the greatest challenges to turbine
transfer augmentation than that of neighboring endwall, coupled designers in ensuring the reliability and durability of the entire air-
with larger wetted area. This ultimately explains that the detached foil through advance cooling techniques. In order to maintain the
pin-fin (baseline case) remains the best configuration among all structural integrity of both the suction and pressure side at the
broken rib and full rib cases. trailing edge region, dense pin-fin arrays have become a viable so-
Figure 19 illustrates the heat transfer enhancement of pin-fin lution in achieving this objective. Other than the typical circular
arrays with dimples and rib-turbulators. These results are based on pin-fin element, diamond or cubic shaped pin-fin elements with
short pin-fin arrays(H/D ¼ 0.2, 0.3, and 1) and combined with better heat transfer performance also proved to be an ideal candi-
dimples and/or rib-turbulators. At Re ¼ 10,000, the results sug- date to be considered for cooling designs in the trailing edge sec-
gested that the short pin-fin arrays have comparable heat transfer tion. Generally, the pin-fin arrays are arranged in a dense
performance with the longer pin-fin arrays (H/D ¼ 2 and H/ configuration in the trailing edge region to maintain the structural
D ¼ 3), as presented in Fig. 18. An interesting phenomena is integrity at this rather thin section, while providing a much larger

Fig. 17 Local heat transfer coefficient, h (W/m2-K) distribution for endwall and pin-fins
[68]

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 Fig. 19 Heat transfer enhancement of pin-fins with dimples
and rib-turbulators Fig. 21 Local heat transfer coefficient of smooth zig-zag channel
[69]

wetted area for more effective convection cooling. As the dia-

mond shaped pin-fin arrays are arranged in a dense configuration, heat transfer enhancement in the following channel. Overall, the
the internal flow domain appears to resemble a somewhat zig-zag heat transfer enhancement of the zig-zag channel is approximately
shape. An innovative zig-zag channel configuration was examined 1.6–1.7 fold compared to the smooth channel counterpart. The
by Siw et al. [69] experimentally. The results of the smooth zig- other advantage of such a design is that the wetted area is
zag channel revealed that the presence of each turn enhances the increased substantially compared to those typical straight chan-
nels. The research efforts are later extended by exploring the
effects of rib-turbulators and tapering endwall on zig-zag channel
based on the configurations presented in Fig. 20 [70].
Figures 21 and 22 illustrate the local heat transfer distribution
of the smooth and rib-turbulated zig-zag channels. Heat transfer in
the entire zig-zag channel is enhanced due to impingement in
each turn and also additional vortices generated by the rib-
turbulators. Heat transfer is high along the rib and the region im-
mediately behind the rib-turbulators. Figure 23 illustrates the total
heat transfer enhancement of the zig-zag channels normalized by
fully developed smooth channel based on the Dittus–Boelter cor-
relation. Overall, the result revealed that the zig-zag channels
(ZZ_Rib1, ZZ_Rib2, and ZZ_Rib3) have comparable heat transfer
performance with longer pin-fin arrays that were presented in an
earlier section, ranging from approximately 2.5–3.5. Note that, by
using larger rib-turbulators (ZZ_Rib4), the heat transfer is further

Fig. 20 Zig-zag channel with different surface configuration Fig. 22 Local heat transfer coefficient of rib-turbulated zig-zag
[70] channel [70]

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 repeated and arranged in a parallel form in narrow region, i.e.,
trailing edge compared to conventional straight internal cooling
channels. With longer flow paths, and positioned strategically, the
coolant is able to remove much more heat load from the gas tur-
bine airfoil.

Conclusions
The advancement of gas turbine technologies which continue to
seek for higher turbine inlet temperature in meeting the efficiency
demand present great challenges to turbine designers. Highly
accurate and highly local detailed heat transfer data are required
in each turbine airfoil section to prevent the airfoil from failure
due to local hot spots. More research efforts shall be focused on
the thin and narrow region, such as the tip and trailing edge sec-
tions of the turbine airfoil. In addition, more studies are needed to
explore the rotating effects in those internal cooling passages.
Other than conducting detailed experiments, this can be achieved
by using advanced computational fluid dynamics software pack-
Fig. 23 Total heat transfer enhancement versus Re (zig-zag
channel) [70] ages that have become not only more accurate, but time and cost
effective. Such numerical results provide further detailed insights
of the flow characteristics in the test domain, which are crucial in
enhanced up to 4.5 times higher than that of smooth channel. Fig- explaining some of the heat transfer phenomena that can be quite
ure 24 illustrates the pressure loss of all test cases at varying challenging to be explored experimentally, especially at realistic
Reynolds number. The pressure loss of the smooth zig-zag chan- gas turbine conditions. Nowadays, with the continuous advance-
nel is relatively constant and insensitive as Reynolds number ment in computational fluid dynamics field, this design and analy-
increases within this tested Reynolds number. However, the pres- sis tools not only lead to reduction of design cycle time and
sure loss in all other test cases with surface features increases with product development costs, but also improved test models.
Reynolds number. The pressure loss in ZZ_Rib1 ranged from
approximately 8–11, is 30–80% higher than that of smooth zig-
zag channel. By having larger rib-turbulators with the height of References
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