Etymology and Meaning of Ethics

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- -Derived
4E TRA from Greek “ethos”
meaning “custom,” and
“moral” from Latin equivalent.  Moral Standards are based on
- Deals with the morality and moral natural law, the law of God
standards. revealed through human reason or
- Involves inquires about the “law of God written in the
rightness/wrongness of actions hearts of men.”
and goodness/badness of traits.  Moral Standards are based on
- Includes moral standards, consequences standards. That
conscience, values, virtues, and which leads to a good
obligations. consequence or result like the
- Moral Definition: Adjective greatest good of the greatest
indicating if an act is ethically number is what is moral.
right or wrong, or if a character is  Moral standards are based also on
good or bad. non-consequence standards or
sense of duty that you wish would
How Moral Standards are be followed by all. Respect for
Formed? humanity, treatment of others as
1. Cultural Influences: Societal a human person, an act that is
norms, traditions, and values moral, springs from a sense of
shape what is considered right or duty, a sense of duty that you
wrong within a community. wish is wished by all and applies
2. Religious Beliefs: Many moral to all human persons.
standards are derived from
religious teachings, which provide Remember!
frameworks for ethical behavior. 1. Rules are not meant to restrict
3. Philosophical Reasoning: your freedom. They are meant to
Ethical theories, such as help you grow in freedom, to grow
utilitarianism, deontology, and in your ability to choose and to do
virtue ethics, offer systematic what is good for you and for
approaches to determine moral others.
principles. 2. Any rule or law that prevents
4. Personal Experiences: human persons from doing and
Individual experiences and being good ought to be repealed.
reflections contribute to one’s They have no reason to exist.
understanding of morality,
influencing moral beliefs.  Rules are meant to set order in
5. Social Interaction: Discussions society.
and interactions with others can  Rules are intended for human
challenge or reinforce moral persons. They are not meant to
views, leading to the evolution of limit a person’s freedom which is
standards over time. the ability to choose and do what
6. Legal Frameworks: Laws often is good.
reflect social media standards, but  Those who do what is good don’t
they can also influence moral even feel the presence of a rule
perceptions by establishing that prevents them from ding
consequences for certain what is not good. It is those who
behaviors. intend to do the opposite of what
is good that feel the suffocating
 Non-moral Standards originate and limiting presence of the rule.
from social rules, demands of
etiquette and good manners. They Morality
are guides of action which should - Refers to the set of shared beliefs
be followed as expected by and standards that distinguish
society.
 Moral Standards are based on the
natural law, the consequence of
one’s actions and sense of duty.
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right from wrong behavior within a duplicated efforts.

community.
- It guides our actions and decisions Moral Assumptions
based on personal, social, or - Are beliefs or presuppositions
cultural values. about what is right or wrong,
- Morality serves as both an good or bad, that guide a
individual guide and a societal person’s behavior or judgments.
framework, essential for upholding These assumptions are often
order and proper conduct in unspoken and form the
human relations. foundation of ethical decision-
making. They can be influenced
Dilemma by culture, religion, upbringing
- It as a situation where a person is and personal experiences.
forced to choose between two or
more conflicting options, neither The Assumptions of Ethics or
of which is acceptable. Morality
- Are foundational beliefs that
Moral Dilemma/Ethical Dilemma underpin moral reasoning and
- When dilemmas involve human ethical theories. These
actions which have moral assumptions guide how we
implication. interpret what is right or wrong,
- In ethics, these are situations good or bad, and shape moral
where persons, who are called frameworks in various contexts.
“Moral Agents” are forced to  Human Dignity
choose between two or more  Consequentalism
conflicting options, neither of  Deontology
which resolves the solution in a  Virtue Ethics
morally acceptable manner.
Categories of Moral Behavior
3 Levels of Moral Dilemma These are key categories used to
1st Level: Individual evaluate behavior in ethical
- A person or individual, has two or discussions: moral, immoral, and
more moral values to consider, amoral behavior. These judgments
s/he can choose one only, and help us grasp diverse beliefs about
choosing one or the other will not what is right and wrong, influencing
solve the problem in a moral way. how we understand and interact with
the world.
2nd Level: Organizational
- Is a challenge for every Moral
organization nowadays; it is all - Behavior that adheres to
about how to match discrepancy society’s recognized standards
between individual needs and of what is right and wrong.
aspirations on the one hand and - Example: A moral person knows
the organizational goals on the lying is bad.
other. Immoral
- Behavior that violates society’s
3rd Level: Structural established moral norms
- Refers to a situation where two or (generally considered “wrong”.)
more departments or teams within - Example: An immoral person
an organization have overlapping knows lying is bad, but does it
responsibilities or functions, anyway.
leading to confusion, conflict, and Amoral
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- Behavior that is indifferent to rooted in individual experiences.

moral standards, neither “right”
or “wrong.” Criticism
- Example: An amoral person - Plays a crucial role in moral
knows lying is bad. (Even if an valuation based on the self,
amoral person knows others say prompting individuals to
“lying is bad,” they may not examine their beliefs and the
personally recognize lying is implications of their actions.
bad.)
Psychological Egoism
The Minimum Requirement - A theory that explains that all
(Elements) of Morality: Reason human actions are driven by
and Impartiality self-interest, aiming for personal
Reason satisfaction and fulfillment,
Morality requires the use of logical whether consciously or not.
thinking and rational justification for
decisions. Moral decisions shouldn’t Ethical Egoism
be based solely on emotions or - Is the belief that people should
biases. Instead, they need to be always act in their own self-
guided by reason, meaning they can interest, decisions are made
be explained, defended, and purely for personal benefit and
understood in an objective manner. with self-satisfaction as the sole
motivation. It suggests that the
This ensures that moral actions are right thing to do is whatever
consistent and can be universally benefits oneself, without
applied, rather than being arbitrary or considering the needs or
irrational. interests of others.

Impartiality Culture
Morality also requires treating - Is the beliefs, values, norms,
everyone’s interests equally, without and practices shared by a group
favoritism or discrimination. and shapes the understanding
of right and wrong, influencing
Impartiality means that moral moral behavior.
judgments should not be influenced
by personal relationships or individual Cultural Elements
preferences. It focuses on fairness and - Are the parts that make up a
justice, ensuring that no one’s culture. They include values,
interests are given more weight norms, symbols, language and
simply due to bias, power, or self- rituals that shapes how a group
interest. thinks and behaves.
Roles in Shaping Moral Behavior
Subjectivism in Several Ways
- Suggests that moral values are  Values guide individuals in
grounded in individual making moral choices.
perspectives rather than  Norms set expectations for how
universal truths and asserts that people should act in various
moral judgments are based on situations, influencing moral
individual feelings and attitudes. decisions.
Understanding subjectivism  Symbols carry meanings that
allows us to appreciate the can affect moral behavior.
complexity of moral values  Language provides the terms
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and concepts that help discourage critical examination

individuals articulate their moral of harmful practices, as
beliefs. challenging them could be
 Cultural rituals reinforce moral perceived as disrespectful to the
values and behaviors. culture in question.

Cultural Relativism Why is Cultural Relativism

- Is the idea that beliefs, customs, Appealing?
and ethics are relative to the - Promote Tolerance: Approach
individual within their own social other cultures with an open
context. mind, fostering tolerance and
- No culture is superior to reducing cultural conflict.
another; judgments are culture- - Avoids Ethnocentrism: The
specific. belief that one’s own culture is
superior to others.
Consequences of Cultural - Encourages Cultural
Relativism Appreciation: Diversity of
- Acceptance of Harmful human traditions, beliefs, and
Practices: Cultural relativism practices.
can lead to the uncritical - Promotes Global
acceptance of practices that Cooperation: Encourages
may be harmful, such as human mutual respect and cooperation
rights abuses, because the are among nations.
seen as culturally significant. - Encourages Ethical
- Impediment to Moral Reflection: Reflect on our own
Progress: It may prevent ethical standards and biases.
societies from evolving by
maintaining outdated customs Why We Cannot Absolutize
and practices that conflict with Cultural Relativism?
contemporary ethical standards. - Violates Universal Human
- Ethical Ambiguity: Cultural Rights: Some cultural
relativism can create confusion practices, like discrimination or
about moral judgments, making violence, conflict with globally
it difficult to address injustices accepted human rights
across different cultural standards.
contexts. - Justifies Harmful Traditions:
Harmful customs such as child
Difficulties of Cultural Relativism labor or gender inequality could
- Defining Cultural be defended as “cultural” and
Boundaries: It can be go unchallenged.
challenging to define what - Prevents Moral Progress:
constitutes a culture, leading to Cultures may cling to outdated
inconsistencies in applying practices, hindering positive
cultural relativism. social change if we don’t
- Internal Cultural Variations: question them.
Within a single culture, there - Leads to Moral Relativism:
can be significant variations in Without universal standards, it
beliefs and practices, becomes difficult to judge any
complicating the application of a practice as right or wrong,
uniform standard. which can create ethical
- Resistance to Critique: confusion.
Cultural relativism may
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Filipino Culture can hold back scientific progress

- Family-centeredness or modern health practices.
- Festivals, religious practices,  It’s important to reflect on
and food represent Filipino gender roles and inequality in
culture’s distinct identity. traditional Filipino values and
- Despite regional differences, promote a more inclusive
Filipinos share common society.
traditions and beliefs that unite
the nation. Cultural Elements
- Belief and Values
Difficulties in Identifying Filipino - Language
Culture - Symbols
- Colonial influences have mixed - Norms and Customs
with indigenous traditions, - Rituals and Traditions
creating a hybrid identity. - Religion and Spirituality
- Regional languages, customs
and traditions vary widely The Role of Culture on Moral
across the islands. Development
- Globalization and modern - Provides identity to the people
influences continue to reshape in the society
cultural practices. - Mirrors the law of the land
- Unifies people in many ways
Source of Filipino Cultural that only those who belong in
Identity that society understands.
- Indigenous Roots: Pre-colonial - Influences our concept of
customs and beliefs still morality.
influence Filipino life, especially
in rural areas. Kohlberg’s Moral Stages
- Colonial Influence: Spanish - Preconventional:
colonization introduced Punishment and Obedience;
Catholicism and many Instrumental - Relativist
traditions, while American - Conventional: Interpersonal
influenced shaped education Concordance; Law and order
and government. - Postconventional: Social
- Family Values: Family ties, contract; Universal ethical
respect for elder, and close-knit principle
communities define Filipino
culture. “Epimeleia he auto”
- Religious Practices: Religious - Ancient Greek meaning “know
festivals like Simbang Gabi and thyself”
Ati-atihan highlight the deep
connection to faith. Ramon C. Reyes
- Born 1935
 Some traditions, like lavish - Graduated at Ateneo de Manila
festivals, can strain financial University with Bachelor of Arts
resources, and we need to in 1956
consider their impact. - Obtained PhD in Philosophy
 Practices like utang na loob from the University Catholique
(dept of gratitude) can lead to deLouvian in Belgium in 1965
unhealthy dependency if not
kept in balance.
 Blindly following superstitions
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Moral Agent about by the larger society. The

- Is a person who has the power culture and the values inherent
to distinguish right from wrong in it are inevitably forces that
and to be held accountable for impact the way individuals
his or her own actions. Moral perceive the world and judge it.
agents have an ethical
responsibility not to cause
unreasonable harm. The Historical
- Events especially those with
The Physical crucial importance shape an
- Includes the genetic entire nation and every
endowments, characteristics individual living in that
endemic to the species Homo particular society. Significant
sapiens with its limitations and events like wars, devastating
strengths, the geographical natural calamities, and
realities in which the individual important societal changes are
is born and lives, the kind of powerful forces that lead to new
natural environment with all awareness leaving incredible
resources and challenges that impact on people’s attitude and
impact growth and thinking. Thereby, people’s lives
development. All these physical are shaped by the crucial events
cross-point are influences not of their lives manifested in their
from the individual’s own day-to-day attitude and manner
choosing. of perceiving new experiences.

The Interpersonal Roles of Emotions in Moral

- The first and the most influential Actions
of them are those established - Moral Motivation: emotions
with the parents. The first like empathy and compassion
human contact of every can drive individuals to help
individual is with parents who others and engage in altruistic
nourish, protect, give care and behavior.
attention and provide security - Moral Judgment: Emotions
at the very first stages of life. influence how we assess moral
How individuals are brought up situations.
in the family influence an - Moral Reasoning: emotions
individuals’ character, manners significantly influence our
and his or her thinking and reasoning processes,
mindset. One’s personality is particularly in moral dilemmas.
shaped by the people around - Social Cohesion: shared
especially by those who emotions such as outrage or
influence the person during the indignation in response to
early years of existence. injustice, can strengthen social
bonds and unite individuals in
The Social collective moral action.
- As individuals grow and discover - Learning and Development:
their way in the outside world, emotions are vital for moral
they come into contact with the development, reinforcing
broader social context. From positive behaviors and
now on, the shaping of discouraging wrongdoing.
individual personality - Regulation of Behavior:
accommodates those brought emotion signal appropriate
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behavior, with guilt prompting - Refers to the fundamental goal

amends and shame deterring or reason for existence that
future wrongdoing. individuals or humanity as a
whole strive to achieve. This
The 7-Steps to Moral Reasoning idea has been explored across
Model various philosophical, religious,
Developed by American Theologian and psychological perspectives.
and Christian Ethics Professor Scott
Rae Arete (Virtue) as Moral Excellence
 Gather the facts - Is about embodying the best
 Determine the social issues qualities in every part of life. It’s
 Determine what like constantly aiming to be your
virtues/principles have a best self, not just in a single
bearing on the case moment but consistently
 List the alternatives throughout life. It’s about
 Compare the alternatives with having your character to reflect
the virtues/principles the highest virtues.
 Consider the consequences
 Make decision

Virtue
- It is a multifaced concept Virtue as the Golden Mean
primarily associated with moral (Nicomachean Ethics)
excellence, goodness, and - Is about finding a balance
righteousness. between extremes. Virtue is the
middle ground between
Ethics deficiency and excess. The idea
- It is the systematic study of is to achieve a balanced,
what is right and wrong in our moderate approach in all
actions and the impact that our aspects of life.
actions have on others and
society as a whole. The Natural Law Ethics Theory
- Natural law is a theory of ethics
Virtue Ethics that says that human beings
- Is a philosophical approach that possess intrinsic values that
emphasizes the role of govern our reasoning and
character and virtue in moral behavior.
philosophy, contrasting with - It states that there are universal
other ethical theories that focus moral standards that are seen
on deontology or across time periods and
consequentialism. societies because these
standards form the basis of a
Happiness just society.
- Is an emotional state
characterized by feelings of joy, The Natural and its Tenets
satisfaction, contentment, and - Natural law theory is the
fulfilment. simplest ethical framework that
- It is often described as involving recognizes the deep connection
positive emotions and life between nature and morality.
satisfaction. - All things in nature or the world
have their own purposes which
Ultimate Purpose are part of an all-encompassing
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law, the natural law. from God.

- Natural law is morality built into  In his famous work, "Summa
the nature of people which is Theologica," Aquinas presents
rationality. five arguments for the existence
- Thomas Aquinas, influenced by of God, emphasizing the use of
Aristotle, the father of natural reason to understand faith.
law, Christianized Aristotelian  Aquinas argued that faith and
philosophy, asserting humans reason are complementary, as
were created by God and aiming faith offers deeper insights into
for ultimate happiness in divine mysteries that reason
heaven, and natural law alone cannot comprehend.
originates and ends in God.  He emphasized virtue ethics,
emphasizing the development
The Context of Aquinas’ Theory of moral character and the
- Aquinas' theory, particularly in pursuit of the ultimate good,
the context of his philosophical which he identified with God.
and theological work, primarily
revolves around the integration Criticism of the Natural Law
of faith and reason. Living in the - Cultural Relativism
13th century, Thomas Aquinas - Ambiguity of Human Nature
sought to reconcile Christian - The Is-Ought Problem
doctrine with Aristotelian - Emphasis on Reason
philosophy. - Religious Overtones
- Inflexibility
- Exclusionary Aspects
Aquinas Natural Law Theory has Kant’s Deontology (Formulation
the following: of Deontology)
- Eternal law of God is revealed - The Formula of Universal
through the Natural Law. Law: Act only according to that
- Natural Law is revealed to all maxim whereby you can at the
people through human reason. same time will that it should
- Natural law has flexibility in its become a universal law.
application. - The Formula of Humanity:
- The natural laws are universal Act in such a way that you treat
and unchangeable bases to humanity, whether in your own
judge individual cultures and person or in the other person of
societies. any other, never merely as a
- Everything in the world has its means to an end, but always at
own nature or purpose (natural the same time as an end.
law) of being. - The Formula of Autonomy:
- Humanity has an essential Act only so that your will can
rational nature. regard itself at the same time as
- Human person can know, making universal law through its
through reason, what is in maxims.
accord with his own nature,
which is good. Perfect Duty
- is an obligation that must
 Eternal law, the ideal order of always be followed without
the universe, is a divine concept exemption. These duties are
that reflects the natural law, absolute and involve actions
making human life infinitely that are necessary and
valuable and a precious gift universally applicable.
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- Goal: Maximize overall

Imperfect Duty happiness at pleasure and
- allows for some flexibility in how minimize suffering
it is fulfilled. These duties
involve actions that promote Principle of Greatest Number
general well-being but can be - Focuses on maximizing
enacted in various ways and at happiness or well-being for the
different times. largest number of people
affected.
 The universal law principle - Used in public policy and social
states that: “Act only on that ethics to justify decisions that
maxim whereby which you benefit the collective.
can at the same will that
become a universal law.”
 The principle of humanity as an
end not a means states that:
“So act as to treat
humanity, whether in your
own person or in that of any
other, in every case at the
same time as an end, never
as a mean only.”
 The principle of the universal
kingdom of ends states that:
“Act according to the
maxims of a member of a
merely possible kingdom of
ends legislating in it
universally.”

Utilitarianism
- A moral theory that suggests
actions are right if they promote
happiness or pleasure and
wrong if they produce
unhappiness or pain
- Originated with philosophers
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart
Mill
- Core Idea: “The greatest
happiness for the greatest
number”

Principle of Utility
- Sometimes called the “Greatest
Happiness Principle”
- Actions are judged based on
their consequences and the
happiness or unhappiness they
produce