UNIT 1

SESSION 1: COMPUTER SYSTEM CONCEPTS

Computer Systems Computers are electronic devices that receive user input, process it to produce
results, present those results to the users, and store those results for later use. So what then is a
computer system? A computer system can be defined as a collection of unique items that collaborate to
carry out a task.

Characteristics and Functions of Computer Systems. The following outlines the characteristics and
function of computer systems

Speed: A computer works significantly faster and more accurately than a human. One billion instructions
can be processed by computers within a second. Computer operations take only a few nanoseconds or
microseconds to complete assigned task.

Accuracy: Computations made by computers are mostly accurate. Data inaccuracy or inconsistency
might lead to errors. Diligence: A computer has the constancy and accuracy to carry out countless jobs
or calculations. It doesn't experience any drowsiness or lack of focus. It is also superior to human
memory because of it deligence.

Versatility: Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with
same accuracy and efficiency.

Reliability: A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data that is, if we give
same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.

Automation: Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e., it performs tasks without manual
intervention.

Memory: A computer has internal storage for data called primary memory. Data is also stored on
removable media like CDs, pen drives, and other types of secondary storage.

Functions

A computer performs the following functions:

Receiving Input: Through a variety of input devices, including a keyboard, mouse, digital pens, etc., data
is sent into a computer. Devices like a CD-ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc. can also be used to provide
input.

Processing the information: The programs' instructions are used to carry out operations on the input
data and preserving the data. The data is kept in the primary or secondary storage location after
processing.

Producing output: Through output devices like a monitor, printer, etc., the processed information and
other details are transmitted to the outside world.
Components of computer system

1. Hardware

Computer Software

Software also referred to as applications or programs.

Software consists of a set of documents, operating systems, and programs that govern and manage the
hardware elements of a computer system. A program is a set of instructions that directs a computer to
carry out specific activities.

There are two categories of software:

System software: System software interacts directly with a computer's physical components. It offers a
platform on which an application can run. The functionality it offers supports the users. Operating
systems such as Windows, Linux, Unix, and others serve as examples of system software.

Application software: This type of program is made to help users carry out one or more tasks. Examples
of application software include Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle, etc. among others.

Computer Liveware is the user of the computer. As the name implies, liveware is simply described as
the people or slang for the people who typically work with computers to operate systems, such as
analysts, programmers, etc

Basic applications of computers

1. Home
2. Medical Field
3. Entertainment
4. Industry
5. Education

Data/Information Representation

Data is a collection of facts and statistics that are not arranged in any particular way and do not reveal
any further information about patterns, context, etc. Data is thus defined as "unstructured facts and
figures."

Information is a structured data kind, meaning it is organized, meaningful, and processed. A computer is
used to process the data and turn it into information.

There are three forms of data representation on a computer and they are as follows:
 1. Number System From a very young age, the concept of numbers is given to us. Everything is a
number to a computer, including alphabets, images, sounds, etc. Number system is categorized
into four types: • Binary number system consists of only two values, either 0 or 1. • Octal
number system represents values in 8 digits. • Decimal number system represents values in 10
digits. • Hexadecimal number system represents values in 16 digits.
2. Bits and Bytes Bits A bit is a smallest possible unit of data that a computer can recognize or use.
Computer usually uses bits in groups. Bytes - group of eight bits is called a byte. Half a byte is
called a nibble
3. Text Code Text code is format used commonly to represent alphabets, punctuation marks and
other symbols. Four most popular text code systems are: • EBCDIC • ASCII • Extended ASCII •
Unicode

Data processing

Data processing is a process of converting raw facts or data into a meaningful information.

Data processing consists of following 6 stages and these stages are outlined below;

1. Collection
2. Preparation
3. Input
4. Output and Interpretation
5. Storage

SESSION 2: INFORMATION SYSTEM (IS), ITS COMPONENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS

Definition of Information System

(IS) A system is made up of various parts (subsystems) that work together to accomplish specific goals. A
system's outputs represent the realization of its goals. An information system is a system that processes
data resources into information products as output after accepting them as input.

Facts of information systems

Here are some information systems-related facts.

1. Essential for business expansion

2. Improved access and storage of data
3. Improved decision making:

Components of information system

1. Computer Hardware
2. Computer Software
3. Databases
 4. Network
5. Human Resources

Characteristics of Information system

1. Data-driven
2. Automated
3. System Approach
4. Management Oriented
5. Need-Based

SESSION 3: INFORMATION SYSTEM INFRASTRUCTURE, ARCHITECTURE AND LIFE CYCLE

Information System (IS) Architecture

The term information system architecture (ISA) refers to the technological framework, product
technologies, system structure, business procedures, and policies needed for an information system or
enterprise.

It provides a summarized response to the following questions:

• Where to store data?

• What data is gathered?

• How and where the data gathered?

• Which application use the data and how are they related to overall system?

• How is the data transferred?

Information System Architecture (ISA) Model

Information System Architecture has the following basic building blocks:

1) Information System Block: The IS block provide the functions which support business process. IS
blocks are related to other blocks via IS services and are executed in IT blocks.

2) Information Entity: Information entity data is created, read, updated, or deleted through a variety of
business processes. The information entity is used by the IS block and is really located in the IT block. For
instance: Information about one information entity is linked to other ones.

3) IT Blocks: IT blocks helps in implementing IS block and manipulation of information entity data.

Services in Information System Architecture (ISA)

ISA comprises of three different services:

1) IT Service: This includes the technological services offered by application platforms.

2) Business Service: This is a set of operations offered by IS blocks which support one or more business
process.

3) IS Service: This is the collection of operations that an IS block provides to other IS blocks. The
description of a service’s-maintained action is what is referred to as an operation. Therefore, operations
offer a few ISArelated details.

Classification of Information System Architecture (ISA)

The following is the classification of the information system architecture:

1. Client- Server Architecture In the client-server computer model, service requesters are referred
to as clients and resource or resource providers are referred to as servers. In any software
organization, client/server architecture is a general concept that can be implemented in several
ways. For example, the interaction between a client application program running on a
workstation and a database management system (DBMS) running on a larger computer system.
2. Mainframe Architecture: The Terminal in the mainframe accepts user queries but does not
validate them. The server completes this as it deals with the request. Up until the middle of
1998, this style of design was common, but today the situation is quite different. Due to its
rigidity and poor cost-to-performance ratio, such design is not currently in use. This paradigm's
extension is the idea of a smart terminal. As smart terminals, a mainframe is combined with a
number of PCs, each of which has a keyboard, screen, and disk drive and can only process a
small number of jobs. This lessened the reliance on constant communication with the main
computer.
3. Distributed System: A distributed system consists of a number of separate computers
connected by a network and running a distributed operating system. The computers can
coordinate their actions and share system resources as a result.
4. Web Based Architecture: Although there are some distinctions, database architecture can be
thought of as an extension of client/server design. In a client/server architecture, the client
workstation contains the application software that is used to communicate with the application
server. However, in the web-based application the client machines have web browsers which
are network to web browser by LAN or WAN.
5. Cloud Architecture: The use of the cloud, the structure of the system, which comprises on-
premises and cloud resources, services, middleware, and software components with their geo-
location, externally visible features, and their inter-relationships, is referred to as the
architecture of a cloud solution. The appropriate architecture for the associated application
determines the protection that is required in cloud computing. In order to assure optimal
performance, organizations must comprehend each application's requirements, and if they are
currently employing cloud computing, they must also comprehend the appropriate cloud
architecture.
6. Grid Architecture: Grid architecture describes how resources are shared in a distributed
environment according to a specific grid design. This is where the resource layer is located,
which consists of network-connected computers, storage devices, electronic data catalogs,
 sensors, and telescopes. It has a number of layers, each of which serves a distinct purpose, with
the upper layers being user-centric and the lower layers being hardware-centric. The lowest
layer connecting the resources of the grid is called the network. The middle-ware layer provides
the technology necessary to enable the participation of various grid components, such as
servers, storage, networks, etc. As a result, it is also referred to as a computing grid's brain.

Information System Infrastructure

The foundation for computer-based business application systems in the form of services to a variety of
customers is a platform of shared technological, human, and organizational capabilities known as
information systems infrastructure. The integrated environment of hardware, software, human
resources, services, data, knowledge, facilities, and communication makes up information system
infrastructure.

Information System’s Life Cycle

A process for creating an information system, or creating models that can be used to create an
information system, is called the system development life cycle (SDLC). A high-quality system that
satisfies client needs in terms of time, money, effectiveness, and efficiency is the goal of the SDLC.
System development is supported by a number of stages and tasks provided by the SDLC.

The information systems life cycle typically consists of the following phases:

1. Planning and analysis:

2. System design
3. Implementation and testing
4. Deployment
5. Maintenance and operation
6. Retirement

SESSION 4: TECHNOLOGY STAGES OF IS INFRASTRUCTURE EVOLUTION

1. Mainframe Era (1960s-1970s) The dawning of Information System (i.e., the early stages of
information system) infrastructure evolution was characterized by bulky/huge, centralized
mainframe computers. The limitations of technology at the time meant most components
needed to create this system were “super-sized”.
2. Client-Server Era (1980s-1990s) The second stage of information system infrastructure
evolution saw the emergence of client-server architecture. In this era, organizations wanted IT
to have a more involving role in the day-to day- activities of the entire organization. To achieve
this, smaller and less powerful client devices were connected to larger, more powerful servers.
The price, size and technical expertise needed to maintain mainframes if they were to be
incorporated into every sector of the organization meant that it was impractical for such an
approach
 3. Internet Era (1990s-2000s) The third stage of information system infrastructure evolution,
known as the internet Era can be described as an upgrade to the Client-server infrastructure. As
its name suggests, this was during the age where the internet had begun to gain a foothold in
the IT realm. The internet truly opened the gateway for global communication and information
sharing.
4. Cloud Era (2000s-present): The fourth and current stage of information system infrastructure
evolution is marked by the widespread use of cloud computing, in which resources are retrieved
from the internet through webbased tools and applications, rather than a direct connection to a
server. Cloud Computing offers the opportunity to access IT resources and services with
appreciable convenience and speed.
5. Edge and IoT Era (2010s-2020s): The latest stage of information system infrastructure evolution
is marked by the emergence of edge computing and IoT (Internet of Things) technology, which
enables data processing and analysis closer to the source of data, rather than in centralized data
centers. IoT devices are physical systems that collect data for processing.

SESSION 5: FUNDAMENTAL RESOURCES AND POTENTIAL RISKS FOR IS

Fundamental Resources of Information Systems:

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. People
5. Network

Potential Risks for Information Systems

1. Security
2. Privacy
3. System failures
4. Natural Disasters
5. Human error
6. Legal and Compliance
7. Dependence on third-party
8. Cybercrime
SESSION 6: APPLICATIONS, BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF IS INFRASTRUCTURE

Application of Information Systems:

Information systems can be applied and incorporated into various industries and organizations to
support a wide range of business processes and activities. These include:

1. Operations management: Information systems can be instrumental in the automation and

streamlining of manufacturing and logistics processes, such as inventory management and
supply chain coordination. Operations management refers to the administrative arm of any
organization.
2. Financial management: Information systems can be used to support financial management
activities, such as accounting, budgeting, and financial analysis. Crunching the statistics of
numbers that organizations produce in financial reports can be very tiring and time-consuming
without the aid of information systems.
3. Marketing and Sales: Information systems can be used to support marketing and sales activities,
such as customer relationship management and ecommerce. With Information systems
providing proper records keeping and inventory services, it will help to maximize all sales too
4. Human resource management: Information systems can be used to support human resource
management activities, such as employee recruitment, training, and performance evaluation.
Information systems will definitely help to keep track of all human-related activities in real time
(something that would have been strenuous otherwise).
5. Decision making: Information systems can be used to support decision-making activities, such as
data analysis and business intelligence. This is because information systems make it possible to
gather information from all relevant sources easily and then quickly process those to ascertain
results needed to make decisions that will benefit the organization as a whole.
6. Knowledge Management: Information systems can be used to support knowledge management
activities, such as capturing, storing, and sharing organizational knowledge. Information systems
usually have robust and large storage sections that can even act as the library for the entire
organization.
7. Supply Chain Management: Information systems can be used to support supply chain
management activities, such as monitoring inventory levels, tracking shipments, and managing
logistics. Information systems will help to reduce the human errors that arise from manual
inventory work.

Benefits of Managing Information System Infrastructure

Below are some of the “pros” of properly managing an organisation’s information system infrastructure.
Such management includes, but is not limited to, frequent scheduled upgrades and maintenance.

1. Improved efficiency:
2. Better decision making:
3. Increased competitiveness:
4. Improved communication and collaboration:
5. Cost savings:
UNIT 2: INFORMATION SYSTEMS ENTERPRISE

Organization Structure

The structure of an organization, including the levels of management and the roles and responsibilities
of each level, is referred to as the organizational hierarchy. An organizational hierarchy often features a
distinct chain of command and a distinct division of labour. The board of directors or CEO is often at the
top level of management, followed by upper management, middle management, and lower
management. The tasks and responsibilities at each level are distinct, and communication usually occurs
from higher levels to lower levels. The relationships between various departments and functions within
the organization are also outlined by the organizational structure. The organizational hierarchy is set up
to enable the existing entity to function and contribute to the successful achievement of its goals and
objectives.

The main levels of management in an organization are typically:

1. Top-Level Management
2. Middle-Level Management
3. Low-Level Management

1. Top-Level Management The Chief Executive and the Board of Directors make up top
management. The title of chief executive officer can range from chairman to managing director
to president to executive director to general manager. This level establishes the overall
business's objectives and the procedures to implement them (making of policy means providing
guidelines for actions and decision). The organization's top management also has ultimate
control over it.
2. Middle-Level Management: The heads of several departments, such as production, sales, etc.,
as well as other departmental managers, are included in the middle level management. Senior
department leaders are occasionally a part of the top management group. For the intermediate
level management, the overall business objectives are converted into departmental objectives.
The departmental leaders then develop their own plans to carry out these goals. Middle-level
managers are especially interested in how their departments are performing.
3. Lower-Level Management: Foremen and supervisors make up the lower-level management;
they watch after the operative workers and make sure that the work is completed correctly and
on schedule. They are therefore primarily in charge of the organization's actual production of
goods and services. This level includes employees who are responsible for performing the tasks
and functions necessary to achieve the organization's goals.
Typically, there are three main levels of organizational hierarchy in information systems:

1. Strategic level: The organization's general strategy and direction are addressed at this level.
Executive support systems (ESS) and decision support systems (DSS) are instances of information
systems used at this level to assist in strategic decision-making and planning.
2. Tactical level: This level is concerned with the day-to-day operations and management of the
organization. Information systems at this level are used to support operational decision-making and
management, such as management information systems (MIS) and enterprise resource planning
(ERP) systems.
3. Operational level: Operational level is concerned with the execution of specific tasks and processes
within the organization. Information systems at this level are used to support front-line employees
and customers, such as point-of-sale systems, customer relationship management systems (CRM),
and supply chain management systems.

SESSION 1: OVERVIEW OF ORGANIZATIONAL HIERARCHY AND LEVELS

Organization Structure
The structure of an organization, including the levels of management and the roles and
responsibilities of each level, is referred to as the organizational hierarchy.

The main levels of management in an organization are typically:

i. Top-Level Management
The Chief Executive and the Board of Directors make up top management. The title
of chief executive officer can range from chairman to managing director to president
to executive director to general manager. This level establishes the overall business's
objectives and the procedures to implement them (making of policy means
providing guidelines for actions and decision). The organization's top management
also has ultimate control over it.

ii. Middle-Level Management:

The heads of several departments, such as production, sales, etc., as well as other
departmental managers, are included in the middle level management. Middle-level
managers are especially interested in how their departments are performing.

iii. Lower-Level Management:

Foremen and supervisors make up the lower-level management; they watch after the
operative workers and make sure that the work is completed correctly and on schedule.
 They are therefore primarily in charge of the organization's actual production of goods and
services. This level includes employees who are responsible for performing the tasks and
functions necessary to achieve the organization's goals.

The various information system types utilized at each level of the organizational hierarchy
within an organization frequently reflect the distinct levels. Typically, there are three main
levels of organizational hierarchy in information systems:
1. Strategic level: The organization's general strategy and direction are addressed at this
level. Executive support systems (ESS) and decision support systems (DSS) are instances
of information systems used at this level to assist in strategic decision-making and
planning.
2. Tactical level: This level is concerned with the day-to-day operations and management
of the organization. Information systems at this level are used to support operational
decision-making and management, such as management information systems (MIS) and
enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems.
3. Operational level: Operational level is concerned with the execution of specific tasks
and processes within the organization. Information systems at this level are used to
support front-line employees and customers, such as point-of-sale systems, customer
relationship management systems (CRM), and supply chain management systems.

SESSION 2: KINDS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

The 6 Main Categories of Information Systems
1. Transaction Processing System (TPS) A type of information system called a transaction
processing system (TPS) is used to handle and manage business transactions. TPSs are made to
manage a lot of transactions in real time or very close to real time, including financial 64
CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Science in Information Technology KINDS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS
UNIT 2 SESSION 2 transactions, sales, and inventory updates. They are essential to an
organization's daily operations and are frequently used by organizations to manage and track
customer, inventory, and financial data.

2. Office Automation System (OAS) An information system type called an Office Automation
System (OAS) is used to automate and streamline office procedures and tasks. OASs often
consist of a mix of hardware and software technologies that are intended to improve
productivity, collaboration, and communication in an office setting. Computers, communication-
related technology, and the staff members tasked with carrying out official duties make up OAS.
At every level of the organization, the OAS supports official activities and covers office
transactions. Clerical and managerial tasks make up the official activities. The goal of an OAS is
to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of office operations by automating routine tasks,
 facilitating communication and collaboration among employees, and providing easy access to
information and resources

3. Knowledge Work System (KWS) A Knowledge Work System (KWS) is a type of information
system that is used to support and improve the performance of knowledge workers. Managers,
engineers, scientists, and other professionals are examples of knowledge workers since they
produce, process, and apply information in their daily work. KWSs often include a combination
of data, software, and hardware resources that are intended to assist knowledge workers' tasks
and activities.

4. Management Information System (MIS); A management information system (MIS) is a system or

process that offers the information required to successfully manage a company. An MIS often
makes use of technology, such as computer systems, to collect, store, process, and distribute
information in order to aid organizational decision-making and control. Numerous business
processes, such as planning, organizing, directing, and controlling, can be supported by this
information. An MIS can also provide information to external stakeholders, such as customers,
suppliers, and regulators. The system typically includes hardware, software, and data. It can also
include people, procedures, and policies. The primary goal of an MIS is to provide managers
with the information they need to make informed decisions about the operation of their
organization. This information can be used to plan, organize, direct, and control the activities of
the organization.

5. Decision Support System (DSS) The decision support system is a well-known information system
that is utilized in a variety of businesses. In order to give automation in decisionmaking or
problem-solving, a decision support system can be used since it is an information system that
analyses business data and other information relevant to the firm. When difficulties arise while
running the business, a manager employs DSS. The decision support system is typically used to
gather data on revenue, sales, or inventory. A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-
based tool that gives decision makers in an organization quick access to pertinent information to
enable them to make more informed judgments. DSSs can encompass a wide range of tools and
techniques, including data visualization, data mining, and modelling, and are intended to
complement rather than replace human decision-making.

6. Executive Support System (ESS: With regard to executive-level decision-making, the ESS is
similar to the MIS. High-level managers, like CEOs and COOs, can use computer-based executive
support systems (ESS) to help them make decisions and solve problems. They give people access
to data and resources that may be used to analyse data, identify trends, and weigh options. ESS
normally come with capabilities for collaboration, reporting, and data visualization. They are
intended to support executives in staying informed, making strategic choices, and overseeing
the success of their company. Top-level executives can plan and manage their workflow and
make business choices with the aid of an executive support system (ESS).
 SESSION 3: FRAMEWORK FOR INFORMATION SYSTEMS
What is Information System Framework?

A framework is a structural representation of a model that enables you to determine what can be
produced and when. It can be used to aid in decision-making by providing a structured approach to
considering a problem. A framework can help in the development and evaluation of hypotheses. For
example, in software development, a framework is a reusable set of libraries or classes that supports
common functionality. It is often used to develop applications faster and easier than starting from
scratch. A framework can be thought of as a template or scaffolding upon which a program or
application can be built.

A conceptual model that outlines the various components of an information system and how they
interact with one another is known as the framework of information systems.

The components of the framework of information systems can be broadly categorized into five main
categories: hardware, software, data, people, and process.

1. Hardware: This category includes the physical components of an information system, such as
computers, servers, and network equipment.
2. Software: This category includes the programs and applications that run on the hardware and make
the information system functional. This includes both system software and application software.
3. Data: This category includes the information that is stored, processed, and transmitted by the
information system. This includes both structured and unstructured data.
4. People: This category includes the individuals and organizations that interact with the information
system, including users, developers, administrators, and stakeholders.
5. Process: This category includes the activities and procedures that are used to manage and maintain
the information system, including planning, development, implementation, and operation.

Some common frameworks used to organize information systems include

1. The Zachman Framework: A matrix called the Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture
offers a structured method for classifying and organizing the components of an organization's
information systems. A 6x6 matrix in the framework divides information into categories based
on the viewpoints of many stakeholders, including the owner, designer, builder, user, operator,
and regulator.
2. The Gartner Framework: The Gartner Framework is a set of guidelines and best practices for
managing and implementing IT projects and services. It includes a number of different
components, including the IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL), the Capability Maturity Model
Integration (CMMI), and the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). The framework
is designed to help organizations improve the efficiency and effectiveness of their IT operations,
and it is widely used by IT
 3. The TOGAF Framework: The TOGAF (The Open Group Architecture Framework) is a widely used
framework for enterprise architecture that provides a comprehensive approach for designing,
planning, implementing, and governing enterprise IT architecture.
4. The FEAF Framework: The U.S. Federal government created the Federal Enterprise Architecture
Framework (FEAF) as a framework to guide the creation and administration of enterprise
architecture throughout the federal government. It provides a common approach for outlining
and analysing the systems, processes, and data used by different agencies, as well as for aligning
those systems with the overall aims and objectives of the federal government.

Operational Level:
The day-to-day business operations are managed by operations managers, who also make
regular choices. At the operational level, two different information system types are used:
transaction processing systems and process control systems.

Middle Management Level:

Middle-level managers make tactical choices that help in carrying out the organization's
plan. Developing divisional strategies, organizing workflows, establishing distribution
routes, and acquiring resources like people, materials, and money are all examples of
tactical decisions. Decision support systems and management information systems are two
different categories of information systems that middle-level managers might employ.

Executive Level:
The highest level of management is the senior executive level, sometimes referred to as the
C-suite level because it is made up of CEOs, COOs, CIOs, CFOs, etc. The C-suite makes
strategic choices that influence and shape an organization's ability to survive in the long
run.

SESSION 5: CLASSIFICATION OF IS BY FUNCTIONAL AREAS

1. Operations Support Systems: An operational support system (OSS) is a group of computer

programs or an IT system used by communications service providers for monitoring, controlling,
analysing and managing a computer or telephone network system. OSS software is specifically
dedicated to telecommunications service providers and mainly used for supporting network
processes to maintain network inventory, configure network components, provision services
and manage faults. An OSS is also known as a business support system (BSS).
 2. Management Support Systems: Management support systems (MSS) are computer-based
information systems that provide managers with the necessary tools to carry out their tasks
more efficiently.

3. Communication and Collaboration Systems: These systems use software and technology to
enable humans to communicate and share documents in a digital space. Companies use
collaboration systems to solve work-related problems such as chaotic communication, paper-
heavy processes, or inability to offer workers telecommuting opportunities. Examples include
email, instant messaging, videoconferencing, project management software, and shared
document platforms such as Google Docs.

4. Business Intelligence Systems: BIS has evolved from the decision support systems and gained
strength with the technology and applications like data warehouses, Executive Information
Systems and Online Analytical Processing (OLAP). Business Intelligence System is basically a
system used for finding patterns from existing data from operations. It is created by procuring
data and information for use in decision-making with the SESSION 5 combination of skills,
processes, technologies, applications and practices which contains background data along with
the reporting tools.as well as of a set of concepts and methods strengthened by fact-based
support systems. It is an extension of Executive.

5. Infrastructure Systems: These systems support the underlying technology infrastructure of an

organization. Infrastructure systems refer to the basic physical and organizational structures and
facilities (e.g. buildings, roads, power supplies) that are necessary for the operation of a society
or enterprise. Examples include transportation systems, communication UNIT 2 90
CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Science in Information Technology networks, water and sewage systems,
and energy systems. These systems are typically designed to be durable and long-lasting, and
are often managed and maintained by government or public entities.

6. Human Resource Systems: These systems support the management of employees, including
recruiting, training, payroll, and benefits administration. They include systems such as human
resource management systems (HRMS) and employee self-service portals.

7. Marketing Systems: These systems support the management of customer relationships, market
research, and advertising. They include systems such as customer relationship management
(CRM) and marketing automation systems.

What is Enterprise System?

An enterprise system is a type of information system that is used to manage and integrate the various
business processes of an entire organization. It is a comprehensive software package that supports and
automates many of the business processes across different functional areas, such as finance, human
resources, supply chain, and customer relationship management. Some examples of enterprise systems
include SAP, Oracle, Microsoft Dynamics, and Infor.

Benefits of Enterprise System

Some of the key advantages of enterprise systems include:

• Improved data quality and accuracy: Enterprise systems allow for the integration of data from
different sources, which can help to reduce errors and inconsistencies.

• Increased efficiency and productivity: Enterprise systems automate many of the business processes,
which can help to reduce the amount of time and effort required to complete tasks.

• Better decision-making: Enterprise systems provide managers and executives with real-time data and
analytics, which can help to inform strategic and operational decisions.

• Better collaboration: Enterprise systems provide tools for collaboration and communication among
employees, which can help to improve the flow of information and knowledge within the organization.

• Improved scalability: Enterprise systems are designed to support the growth and expansion of
organizations, and can be easily configured to meet changing business needs.

• Cost savings: Enterprise systems can help to reduce costs by automating manual processes, reducing
errors and increasing efficiency, and by providing a single source of truth for the organization which
reduces the need to maintain multiple systems.

• Improved data management and organization: Information enterprise systems help to centralize and
organize data, making it easier to access and manage.

• Improved customer service: By providing access to customer data and interactions, information
enterprise systems can help companies improve their customer service.

• Greater visibility into operations: Information enterprise systems can provide real-time insights into
business operations, helping managers to identify and address problems more quickly.

Challenges of Enterprise Systems

Below are some of the challenges likely to encounter or usually encounter when using enterprise
systems in an organizations or firms:

1. Integration and compatibility: Integrating new enterprise information systems with existing
systems can be a major challenge, as different systems may use different technologies and data
formats.
2. Data quality and accuracy: Ensuring the accuracy and completeness of data entered into
enterprise information systems can be difficult, as data may be entered manually by employees
or imported from other systems.
 3. Security: Enterprise information systems often store sensitive business and customer data,
making them a target for cyber-attacks. Ensuring the security of these systems can be a major
challenge.
4. User adoption: Getting employees to use enterprise information systems can be difficult, as they
may be resistant to change or unfamiliar with new technology.
5. Training: Enterprise systems often require significant training and change management to
ensure that employees are able to use the system effectively. Providing training for employees
on how to use enterprise information systems can be costly and time-consuming.
6. Maintenance and support: Enterprise information systems require ongoing maintenance and
support, which can be costly and resourceintensive.
7. Scalability: As business needs change, enterprise information systems may need to be scaled up
or down, which can be a major challenge.
8. Customization: Enterprise information systems are often highly customizable, but customization
can be difficult and time-consuming, and may require specialized skills.
9. Data privacy and compliance: Enterprise information systems may store sensitive personal data,
making compliance with data privacy laws and regulations a major challenge.
10. Data Quality: Ensuring the quality and consistency of data within an enterprise system can be a
significant challenge, especially when dealing with large amounts of data from multiple sources
11. Cost: Implementing and maintaining an enterprise system can be expensive, and it may take a
long time to see a return on investment.

UNIT 3: TELECOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

SESSION 1: THE CONCEPT OF A NETWORK

What is a network?

In the broadest sense, a network is any interconnected group of people or things capable of sharing
meaningful information with one another.

In a technology context, network is usually short for "computer network" or "data network" and implies
that computers are the things sharing the meaningful information. Two or more computers connected
together to share resources (such printers and CDs), exchange files, or enable electronic
communications

Why are networks important?

Networks are important for several reasons:

• Resource sharing: Networks allow devices to share resources, such as printers, scanners, and storage
devices. This can increase efficiency and reduce costs.

• Communication: Networks allow devices to communicate with one another, enabling the exchange of
information and data. This can include email, instant messaging, and file sharing.

• Remote access: Networks allow users to access resources and information from remote locations. This
can include remote desktop access, remote access to files and data, and teleconferencing.
• Network services: Networks provide a variety of services that make it easier for devices to
communicate and share resources. Examples include DHCP, DNS, and NAT.

• Network security: Networks provide security measures to protect against unauthorized access and
attacks. This includes firewalls, encryption, and antivirus software.

• Scalability: Networks can be easily expanded and modified to accommodate new devices and users.

• Business expansion: Networking enables companies to expand and reach new markets by connecting
different offices and employees to work seamlessly together.

• Cloud Computing: Networking provides the foundation for cloud computing, which allows users to
access information and services from remote servers via the internet.

• Network management: Network management allows for monitoring and controlling of the network, to
ensure that it is running efficiently and effectively.

• Innovation: Networking enables new technologies and applications to be developed and implemented,
leading to new ways of working and new business models

Network Criteria

A network must be able to meet a variety of requirements. The three that are most crucial are security,
reliability, and performance.

Performance: There are numerous ways to measure performance, including transit and response times.
The amount of time needed for a message to get from one device to another is known as the transit
time. The period of time between a request and a response is known as the response time.

Reliability: Along with delivery accuracy, network reliability is determined by the frequency of failures,
how quickly a link recovers from a failure, and how resilient the network is to catastrophes.

Security: The protection of data from illegal access, the prevention of data loss and development, and
the implementation of rules and processes for data recovery from breaches are all challenges related to
network security.

The components of a network

The components of a network can include:

1. Devices: The devices on a network include computers, servers, routers, switches, hubs, and
other networking hardware.
2. Media: The media used to connect devices on a network include cables (such as Ethernet,
coaxial, and fiber-optic) and wireless technologies (such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth).
3. Network Interface Card (NIC): Each device on a network has a NIC, which is a hardware
component that allows the device to connect to the network.
 4. Network Operating System (NOS): A network operating system is the software that runs on
devices and provides network management, security, and other services. Examples include
Windows Server, Linux, and Cisco IOS.
5. Protocols: Protocols are the rules and standards that govern communication on a network.
Examples include TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, DNS, and SMTP.
6. Services: Services are the features and functions provided by a network, such as file sharing,
email, and printing.
7. Security: Security measures are put in place to protect the network from unauthorized access
and attacks. This includes firewalls, encryption, and antivirus software.

Types of Networks
There are several types of networks, each with their own unique characteristics and uses. The main
types of networks include:

A Local Area Network (LAN) is usually privately owned and connects some hosts in a single office,
building, or campus. A LAN is a network that connects devices in a small geographic area, such as a
home, office, or building. LANs are typically used to share resources, such as printers and files, and to
provide internet access to devices on the network. Depending on the needs of an organization, a LAN
can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office, or it can extend throughout a
company and include audio and video devices.

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is an interconnection of devices capable of communication. A WAN is a

network that connects devices over a larger geographic area, such as a city, state, or country. WANs are
typically used to connect LANs and other networks together, allowing the sharing of resources and
information. However, there are some differences between a LAN and a WAN. A LAN is normally limited
in size, spanning an office, a building, or a campus; a WAN has a wider geographical span, spanning a
town, a state, a country, or even the world. A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects connecting
devices such as switches, routers, or modems. A LAN is normally privately owned by the organization
that uses it; a WAN is normally created and run by communication companies and leased by an
organization that uses it. We see two distinct examples of WANs today: point-to-point WANs and
switched WANs.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a computer network that
spans a metropolitan or urban area, connecting multiple LANs (Local Area Networks) together. A MAN
typically uses highspeed connections such as fiber-optic cables or microwave links, and is often owned
and operated by a single entity, such as a government or private company. The main purpose of a MAN
is to provide a wider area of network coverage than a LAN, while still being smaller and more contained
than a WAN (Wide Area Network). Examples of MANs include city-wide networks for public
transportation systems and networks that connect multiple corporate office buildings within a city. A
MAN is a network that connects devices within a metropolitan area, such as a city. MANs are typically
used to connect LANs and WANs together and to provide internet access to devices on the network.

Campus Area Network (CAN): A Campus Area Network (CAN) is a computer network that connects
multiple LANs (Local Area Networks) within a specific geographic area, such as a university campus, a
corporate office complex or a military base. A CAN typically uses wired and wireless communication
technologies to connect various buildings, departments, and other facilities within the campus. The
main purpose of a CAN is to provide a high-speed, secure and reliable network infrastructure that
connects all the devices, users and applications within the campus. It enables the sharing of resources
such as printers, servers, and databases, and facilitates.

TELECOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

UNIT 3

SESSION 2: TYPES OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Telecommunication networks

Telecommunication networks are used to transmit information over long distances, and they come in a
variety of different types. These types of networks can be classified based on their characteristics and
the services they provide.

Circuit-Switched Networks:

In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated connection is established between two or more devices for
the duration of the call or transmission. This type of network is commonly used for telephone calls and
other voice communications. Considering a circuit-switched network, a dedicated connection, called a
circuit, is always available between the two end systems; the switch can only make it active or inactive.

Packet-Switched Networks:

In a packet-switched network, data is broken down into small packets and sent to its destination
through a series of interconnected devices. This type of network is commonly used for internet and data
communications. In a computer network, the communication between the two ends is done in blocks of
data called packets. In other words, instead of the continuous communication we see between two
telephone sets when they are being used, we see the exchange of individual data packets between the
two computers.

Cellular Networks:

Cellular networks are wireless networks that use radio waves to transmit and receive data. These
networks are made up of a series of interconnected cells, each of which is controlled by a base station.
This type of network is commonly used for mobile phone communications. Examples of cellular
networks include GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) and CDMA (Code Division Multiple
Access). Cellular networks, also known as cellular or mobile networks, are communication networks that
use a system of cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or base
station, to cover a geographical area. Cellular networks are used primarily for mobile phone and internet
access. They consist of a network of cell sites, each covering a small area, typically a few square
kilometers, and connected to a central network operations center. When a mobile device such as a
phone or tablet connects to the network, it is connected to the nearest cell site, and the call or data
transmission is then routed through the network to its destination.

There are two main types of cellular networks:

1. 2G (Second Generation): These networks use circuit-switched technology and provide voice and
data services at slow speeds. They use various technologies such as GSM and CDMA.
2. 3G (Third Generation) and 4G (Fourth Generation): These networks use packet-switched
technology and provide faster data services, such as internet access and video streaming. They
use various technologies such as CDMA2000, WCDMA and LTE.

5G (Fifth Generation) cellular networks are now being deployed, providing even faster data rates and
lower latency than 4G networks, and enabling a new set of use cases such as IoT, autonomous vehicles
and edge computing. Cellular networks have the advantage of being widely available and providing
mobile connectivity. However, they can be expensive to set up and maintain, and network coverage can
be limited in remote or rural areas.

Satellite Networks:

Satellite networks use satellites in orbit to transmit and receive data. These networks are commonly
used for long-distance communications, such as television and radio broadcasts, and in remote areas
where other types of networks are not available. Examples of satellite networks include GPS (Global
Positioning System) and VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) networks. Satellite networks in
telecommunications refer to the use of satellites to provide communication services, such as voice, data,
and video transmission.

There are two types of satellite networks:

1. Geostationary satellites: These satellites orbit the Earth at the same speed as the Earth's
rotation, so they appear to be in a fixed position in the sky. They are used primarily for television
and radio broadcasting, and for providing long-distance telephone and internet services to
remote areas.
2. Low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites: These satellites orbit the Earth at a much lower altitude than
geostationary satellites, usually at around 1,200 km. They are used for satellite phone services
and for providing internet access to remote areas.

Hybrid Networks:

Hybrid networks combine elements of different types of networks to provide a more comprehensive
solution. For example, a hybrid network may use a combination of circuit-switched and packet-switched
technologies to provide both voice and data communications. A hybrid network is a combination of two
or more different types of networks that are connected together to form a single network
infrastructure. The main purpose of a hybrid network is to provide a flexible and scalable solution that
can meet the diverse communication and networking needs of an organization.

Examples of hybrid networks include:

1. Combining a wired LAN (Local Area Network) with a wireless LAN (WLAN) to provide both wired
and wireless connectivity
2. Combining a LAN with a WAN (Wide Area Network) to connect remote offices and employees to
the main office
3. Combining a LAN with a VPN (Virtual Private Network) to provide secure remote access to the
network
4. Combining a LAN with a cloud-based infrastructure to provide scalable and on-demand
computing resources

SESSION 3: NETWORKING THE ENTERPRISE

Enterprise Network

Consider the Enterprise Network like the Internet, only local to your company. An enterprise network
facilitates communication, file sharing, system access, and performance evaluation of an IT environment
that supports business activities.

Business networks are set up to:

• Connect a select group of approved people, systems, and applications.

• Create a safe and effective communication channel to carry out particular corporate functions.

Key Components of enterprise networking

There are several key components of enterprise networking, including:

Network infrastructure: This refers to the physical devices and connections that make up the network,
such as routers, switches, and cables.

Network topology: This refers to the layout and organization of the network, including the way devices
are connected and how data flows through the network. Common network topologies include star, bus,
and mesh.

Network protocols: These are the set of rules that govern how data is transmitted over the network.
Examples include TCP/IP, which is the most widely used protocol for the Internet, and Ethernet, which is
commonly used in local area networks (LANs).
Network security: This is the practice of protecting the network and its associated resources from
unauthorized access and attacks. Techniques such as firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and virtual
private networks (VPNs) are commonly used to secure enterprise networks.

Network management: This refers to the process of monitoring and maintaining the network, including
troubleshooting issues, updating software and firmware, and monitoring network performance.
Network Services: These are the services that allow the network to perform different functionalities, like
DNS, DHCP, WINS, VPN, etc.

SESSION 5: TELECOMMUNICATION MEDIA

Telecommunication media: refers to the different types of physical and wireless channels that are used
to transmit information from one location to another. The two main categories of transmission media in
telecommunications are guided and unguided. Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable
are examples of guided media. Unguided medium is free space.

Guided Media

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair
cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and
contained by the physical limits of the medium.

 Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its
own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver,
and the other is used only as a ground reference.
 Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable: The most common twisted-pair cable used in
communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a
version of twisted-pair cable for its use, called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
 Fiber-Optic Cable: A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form
of light. They are faster and more reliable than copper wires and can transmit signals over much
longer distances, but they are also more expensive to install.

Unguided Media

Unguided media do not provide a physical path for the signal to travel, but instead use the airwaves to
transmit signals. Electromagnetic waves are transported via unguided media without the use of a
physical conductor. Wireless communication is a common name for this kind of communication. Signals
are typically broadcast via open space, making them accessible to anyone with a device that can pick
them up.

 Radio Waves: While there isn't a definite line that separates radio waves from microwaves,
electromagnetic waves with frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are typically referred to as
radio waves, while those with frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are referred to as micro
waves.
 Microwaves: Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can
be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
  Infrared: Infrared is a type of unguided media that uses light to transmit signals. It is commonly
used in remote control devices and in short-range wireless communication, such as in some
wireless keyboards and mouse.
 Satellite: Satellites are used to transmit information wirelessly over long distances. They are
used for television and radio broadcasting, as well as for internet and telephone service in
remote or hard-to-reach areas.

SESSION 6: NETWORK TOPOLOGIES AND TRENDS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Network Topology

Network topology refers to the layout and organization of the devices on a network, and how they are
connected to one another.

Types of Network Topology

There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

 Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
 Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.
 Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
 Bus Topology
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology, on the other
hand, is multipoint. One long cable act as a backbone to link all the devices in a network. Nodes
are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps