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11. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

11.1 Introduction 11.6 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Energy

11.2 Electron Emission Quantum of Radiation
11.3 Photoelectric Effect 11.7 Particle Nature of Light: The Photon
11.4 Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect 11.8 Wave Nature of Matter
11.5 Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory of Light

Electron emission: The process of emission of free electrons from a metal surface.
Types of electron emission:
(i) Thermionic emission: the process of emission of electron from a metal surface when heat energy is
supplied to it.
(ii) Field emission: The process of emission of free electrons from metal surface when strong electric field
is applied on it.
(iii)Photo-electric emission: It is the process of emission of free electrons from metal surface when a
radiation of suitable frequency falls on it.
 When a radiation of suitable frequency falls on certain metals, free electrons are emitted. These electrons
are called photoelectrons. The current due to these electrons is called photoelectric current.
 The energy required to liberate electron from metal is least. Hence metals are preferred for electron
emission.
 work function: It is the minimum energy of incident radiation for which the free electron just emit from
metal surface.
𝑕𝑐 𝐶
𝑊 = 𝑕𝜈0 = 𝜆 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒𝜈0 = 𝜆
0 0
Where 𝜈0 is the threshold frequency and 𝜆0 is the threshold wavelength.

 Threshold frequency (𝝂𝟎 ) : It is the minimum frequency of incident radiation below which
photoelectric effect does not take place.
 Threshold wavelength(𝝀𝟎 ): It is the maximum wavelength of incident radiation above which
photoelectric effect does not take place.
 Electron volt (eV): it is the energy acquired by an electron when it is accelerated by potential difference
of one volt.
𝑤
i.e 1eV= 1.6 X 10-19 C X 1V 𝑉 = 𝑞 ⇒ 𝑾 = 𝒒𝑽 = 𝒆𝑽
=1.6 X 10-19 C V
1eV= 1.6 X 10-19J

Heart’s observation: Heinrich Hertz performed an experiment to investigate electromagnetic radiations.

Hertz observed that the high voltage sparks across the detector were enhanced when the metal ring was
illuminated by UV rays.

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Lenard’s observations on photoelectric effect.

Lenard’s experimental setup to study photoelectric effect is as shown in the figure. Lenard observed that,
1. As soon as the ultraviolet radiations were incident on the emitter plate the current flows in the circuit.
2. The current flows stopped immediately when the ultraviolet radiations were stopped.
3. There was a minimum frequency of the incident light below which no electrons were emitted. This
minimum frequency is called threshold frequency.
Hallwach’s experimental observations on photoelectric effect.
Hallwach measured the charge on zinc plate using an electroscope he observed that
1. Negative charged zinc plate lost its negative charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet radiation
2. Uncharged zinc plate becomes positive when it was illuminated by ultraviolet radiations
3. Positive charged zinc plate becomes more positive when it was illuminated by ultraviolet radiations

EXPERIMENT TO STUDY PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The schematic arrangement used for the experimental study of the photoelectric effect is shown in the figure

 The experimental arrangement consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube having a photosensitive plate C
and another metal plate A(collector)

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 Monochromatic light from the source s of sufficiently short wavelength passes through the transparent
quartz window and falls on the photosensitive plate C (emitter)
 The electron are emitted by the plate C are collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric field
created by the battery.
 The battery maintains the potential difference between the plates C and A, which can be varied. The
polarity of the plates C and A, can be reversed by a commutator.
 When the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the electrons are attracted to it.
The emission of electrons causes flow of electric current in the circuit.
 The potential difference between the emitter and collector plates is measured by a voltmeter (V) and
photo current flowing in circuit is measured by a microammeter (μA).

Experimental observation of photoelectric effect (laws of photoelectric effect):

1. The Photoelectric effect is instantaneous.( i.e. photoelectric current flows as soon as the radiation falls on
the cathode about 10-9s.)
2. The strength of photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
3. For a given photo emissive surface, there is a minimum frequency for the incident radiation below which
there is no photoelectric emission. This minimum frequency is called threshold frequency (𝝂𝟎 ).

4. Above threshold frequency, the minimum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases linearly with
frequency of the incident radiation.
5. As the applied potential is increased he photoelectric current increases and attains saturation. On
reversing the potential, photo current decreases and becomes zero at a particular negative potential and is
called stopping potentialVs.

 Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential: from graph it is found that stopping
potential increases with increases in frequency of incident radiation.
 Stopping potential ( Vs): It is the minimum negative potential applied to the anode to just stop the photo
emission from cathode.
 The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron with maximum velocity is given by
1 2
KEmax = mvmax = eVs
2
 Saturation current: As the potential of collector is increased for a radiation of certain high intensity,
photoelectric current increases and reaches to a maximum constant value, this constant current is called
saturation current.

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11.6 Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect.

According to Einstein, photoemission is a simple collision between the incident photon and the free electron
of the metal. When a photon of energy hν is collides with a free electron, it transfers its energy completely to
the electron. A part of this energy is used to just liberate the electrons from the metal surface and is called
work function (φ0) and remaining part of the energy appears as the maximum kinetic energy (kmax) of the
photoelectrons.
According to Einstein’s explanation,
Energy of incident photon = (work function) X (maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons)
E = φ0 + K max
But E= 𝑕𝜈 and φ0 = hν0
1 2
∴ 𝑕𝜈 = hν0 + K max ⇒ 𝑕𝜈 = hν0 + mVmax
2
K max = 𝑕𝜈 − hν0
𝐊 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝒉 𝝂 − 𝛎𝟎 − −−→ (𝟏)
Where h is the planks constant, 𝜈 is the frequency of incident radiation, and ν0 is the threshold frequency
This relation is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
Explanation of the results:

1. Photoelectric effect is instantaneous.

Einstein treated the collision between a photon and an electron as the collision between the two
microparticles. Therefore the photo electric effect is instantaneous.
2. If 𝝂 = 𝛎𝟎 then from equation (1) kmax =0, that is photoemission is just possible.
When frequency of photon is equal to the threshold frequency, the electron just come out from the metal
surface but kmax=0. The maximum kinetic energy of electron increases as the frequency of incident
radiation increases.
3. If 𝝂 > 𝛎𝟎 then from equation (1) kmax is positive, that is photoemission is possible.
When frequency of photon is greater than the threshold frequency, the electron comes out from the metal
surface with kinetic energy. Above threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy increases as the
frequency of incident radiation increases.
4. If 𝝂 < 𝛎𝟎 then from equation (1) kmax is negative. But kinetic energy never be negative.
When frequency of photon is less than threshold frequency, the electron does not come out of the metal
surface.
5. Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
One photon interacts with only one electron. As intensity of incident radiation increases, number of
photoelectrons emitted per second increases and hence current increases.

11.7 PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT: THE PHOTON

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Photoelectric effect is strong evidence to particle nature of light. According to Einstein photon is associated
with definite value of energy and momentum. This is the property of particle in motion. Hence light is
considered to have particle nature.
Photon is the packet of energy of radiation.
Characteristics of a photon (particle nature of light)
1. Radiation consists of packets of energy called photons (or quant).
2. The rest mass of photon is zero.
3. The photons are electrically neutral.
4. The photons travel with the speed of light.
5. The energy of each photon is given by E=hν. Where h is the planks constant and ν= frequency of photon.
6. The energy of the photon is directly proportional to the frequency of the photon.
𝑕
7. Momentum of the photon is given by, p =mC or 𝑝 = 𝜆 .
WAVE NATURE OF MATTER
 The phenomenon of interference, diffraction and polarization requires wave nature where as
photoelectric effect and Compton Effect confirms particle nature of light. Thus light exhibits dual
nature.
 Matter exhibits both particle like and wave like properties when in motion, it is known as dual nature of
matter.
 Louis de-Broglie proposed the matter waves
 Matter wave or de-Broglie wave: these are the waves associated with the moving material particle
 De-Broglie wave length: it is the wavelength of the matter wave.
𝑕
 Expression for de-Broglie wavelength of a matter is given by 𝜆 = where h planks constant, m is the
𝑚𝑣
mass of particle and v is the velocity of moving particle.
𝑕
 Expression for de-Broglie wavelength of a photon is given by 𝜆 = 𝑚𝐶 where h planks constant, m is the
mass of photon and v is the velocity of photon.
𝑕
 Expression for de-Broglie wavelength in terms of kinetic energy of the particle: 𝜆 = where m is
2𝑚 𝐸𝑘
the mass of particle and Ek is the kinetic energy of the particle.
𝑕
 Expression for de-Broglie wavelength of charge in terms of accelerating potential: 𝜆 = where h
2𝑚𝑞𝑉
planks constant, m is the mass of the charge, q is the magnitude of charge, V is the accelerating
potential.
𝑕 1.227
 Expression for de-Broglie wavelength of electron in terms of accelerating potential: 𝜆 = =
2𝑚𝑒𝑉 𝑉
where h planks constant, m is the mass of the charge, e is the magnitude of charge of electron, V is the
accelerating potential.

Q. Mention three types of electron emissions. Q. Define stopping potential.

Q. What is meant by photoelectric emission? Q. Mention three properties of photon.
Q. Define electron volt. Q. What is the rest mass of a photon?
Q. Mention Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observation Q. What are matter waves or de-Broglie waves?
Q. Define work function Q. What is de-Broglie wavelength?
Q. Define threshold frequency. Q. How does the de-Broglie wavelength vary with
Q. Mention five experimental observations of momentum of moving particle?
photoelectric effect (or laws of photoelectric Q. Write the expression for the de-Broglie
emission) wavelength of a moving particle and explain the
Q. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation and explain terms.
the terms. Q. Write the de-Broglie wavelength of electrons in
Q. Write Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect. terms of electric potential and explain the terms.
Give Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect.

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12. ATOM
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Alpha-particle Scattering and Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom
12.3 Atomic Spectra
12.4 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
12.5 The Line Spectra of the Hydrogen Atom
12.6 DE Broglie’s Explanation of Bohr’s Second Postulate of Quantisation

12.1 INTRODUCTION:
 Atom as a whole is electrically neutral and therefore contains equal amount of positive and negative
charges.
 The first model of atom was proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1898. According to this model, the positive
charge of the atom is uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the atom and the negatively
charged electrons are embedded in it like seeds in a watermelon. This model was picturesquely called
plum pudding model of the atom.

12.2 ALPHA-PARTICLE SCATTERING AND RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR MODEL OF ATOM

At the suggestion of Ernst Rutherford, in 1911, H. Geiger and E. Marsden performed experiment.
83
Figure shows a schematic diagram of the experiment. Alpha-particles emitted by a 214 𝐵𝑖 radioactive source
were collimated into a narrow beam by their passage through lead bricks. The beam was allowed to fall on a
thin foil of gold of thickness 2.1 × 10–7 m. The scattered alpha-particles were observed through a rotatable
detector consisting of zinc sulphide screen and a microscope. The scattered alpha-particles on striking the
screen produced brief light flashes or scintillations. These flashes may be viewed through a microscope and
the distribution of the number of scattered particles may be studied as a function of angle of scattering.

Observations:
A typical graph of the total number of α-particles scattered at different angles, in a given interval of time, is
shown in the fig.
 Many of the α-particles pass through the foil. It means that they do not suffer any collisions.
 Only about 0.14% of the incident α-particles scatter by more than 1°; and about 1 in 8000 deflect by
more than 90°.

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Conclusion of Geiger-Marsden experiment.

Rutherford argued that, to deflect the α-particle backwards, it must experience a large repulsive force. This
force could be provided if the greater part of the mass of the atom and its positive charge were concentrated
tightly at its centre. Rutherford named this central part of the atom as nucleus. Thus Rutherford’s
assumptions could explain the large angle scattering of alpha particle.

Alpha particle trajectory:

 The trajectory traced by an α-particle dependent on the impact parameter (b) of collision.

 A given beam of alpha particle has the different impact parameters b, so that the beam is scattered
various directions with different probabilities.
 The impact parameter (b) is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of the α-particle from
the centre of the nucleus.
 It is seen that an α-particle close the nucleus (small impact parameter) suffers large scattering.

 In case of head-on collision, the impact parameter is minimum and the α-particle rebounds back (θ=π)
 For a large impact parameter, the α-particle goes nearly undeviated and has a small deflection(θ=0)

Rutherford’s model of an atom (planetary model)

According to Rutherford,
1. An atom consists of positively charged core called nucleus.
2. All positive charge and almost entire mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
3. The nucleus is surrounded by number of electrons. These electrons revolve in circular orbits around the
nucleus similar to planets revolving around the sun.
4. The order of size of the nucleus is 10-15m and the order of size of the atom is 10-10m. That is an atom is
100000 times bigger than nucleus. This indicates that there is a large empty space in the atom.
5. The total positive charge on the nucleus is equal to the total negative charge on the electrons. Hence the
atom is electrically neutral.
6. The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and electrons provides the necessary centripetal
force.
12.2.2 Electron orbits
Expression for total energy of electron in hydrogen atom in terms of orbit radius using Rutherford atomic
model.
Consider an electron revolving around the nucleus of hydrogen atom. The electrostatic force of attraction, (Fe)
between the revolving electrons and the nucleus provides the requisite centripetal force (Fc) to keep them in their
orbits. Thus, for a dynamically stable orbit in a hydrogen atom

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Fc = Fe
2
𝑚𝑣 1 𝑒2
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
1 𝑒2 1 𝑒2
Thus the relation between the orbit radius and the electron velocity is 𝑟 = 𝑚𝑣2 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑣2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

The kinetic energy (K) and electrostatic potential energy (U) of the electron in hydrogen atom are
1
𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1 1 𝑒2
k= 2 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟
𝒆𝟐
K= 𝟖𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

𝟏 𝐞
And 𝐔 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆 −𝐞 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑈 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑞
𝟎 𝐫
(The negative sign in U signifies that the electrostatic force is in the –r direction.)

Thus the total energy E of the electron in a hydrogen atom is 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈

e2 1 𝑒2
𝐸= −
8πε0 r 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝒆𝟐
𝑬=−
𝟖𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

Thus the total energy E of the electron is negative. This implies the fact that electron is bound to the nucleus.

Merits of Rutherford model of an atom

It explain large angle alpha-scattering.
Demerits of Rutherford model of an atom
1. It could not explain stability of the atom.
2. It could not explain origin of spectral lines.

12.3 ATOMIC SPECTRA

 When an atomic gas or vapour is excited at low presser, the emitted radiation has a spectrum which
contains certain specific wavelength only, it has bright lines on a dark background and termed as
emission line spectrum.
 When white light passes through a gas and when analyse the transmitted light using a spectrometer it is
found that some dark lines in the spectrum. This is called the absorption spectrum of the material of
the gas. These dark lines correspond precisely to those wavelengths which were found in the emission
line spectrum of the gas.

12.4 BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

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To explain the line spectra emitted by atoms, as well as the stability of atoms, Niel’s Bohr proposed a
model for hydrogenic (single electron) atoms, he introduced three postulates and laid the foundations of
quantum mechanics.
BOHR’S POSTULATES OF AN ATOM MODEL:
 First postulate: An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission of
radiant energy. These are called the stationary orbit of the atom
 Second postulate: The electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular
momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π where h is the Planck’s constant (= 6.6 × 10–34 J s). Thus
the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is quantised.
That is L = nh/2π
 Third postulate: It states that an electron might make a transition from one of its specified non-radiating
orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy
difference between the initial and final states.
The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by hν = Ei - Ef
where Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final states and Ei > Ef.

𝜀0 𝑛 2 𝑕 2
The radius of nth possible orbit 𝑟=
𝜋𝑚𝑍 𝑒 2
The radius of nth stationary orbit of hydrogen atom (Z=1) is
𝜀0 𝑛2𝑕2
𝑟𝑛 = … … (3)
𝜋𝑚 𝑒 2
For Bhor radius (radius of the firs orbit) n=1
𝜺 𝟎 𝒉𝟐
∴ 𝒓𝟏 =
𝝅𝒎𝒆𝟐
Note
 The radius of the first orbit of hydrogen atom is known as Bhor radius.
𝟐
𝜺𝟎 𝒉𝟐 𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒𝑿𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝟔.𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑿𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒
 Bhor radius 𝒓𝟏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟗𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑Å
𝝅𝒎𝒆𝟐 𝟑.𝟏𝟒𝟐𝑿𝟗.𝟏𝑿𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝑿 𝟏.𝟔𝑿𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝟐
𝑛2
 In general for any atom 𝑟𝑛 = 0.53 Å
𝑍
Ze 2
The expression for energy E = − 8πε
0r
ε0 n 2 h 2
But radius of the nth orbit r=
πmZ e 2
Ze2 πmZe2
∴E=− X
8πε0 ε0 n2 h2

−mZ 2 e 4
E=
8ε 0 2 n 2 h 2

−𝐦𝐞𝟒
For hydrogen atom (Z=1) 𝐄=
𝟖𝛆𝟎 𝟐 𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐
Note:
 The negative sign indicates that the electrons are bound to the nucleus by attraction and energy increases as n
increases . Therefore the electrons in the outer orbit have more energy than those in the inner orbits.
 The energy of an electron of an hydrogen atom (Z=1) is
−me4 9.1 X10−31 X 1.6x10−19 4 −21.8x10−19
E= = − = J
8ε0 2 h2 n2 8x 8.854x10−12 2 x 6.625x10−34 2 n2 n2
In the ground state (n=1)

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−21.8x10−19 −21.8x10−19
𝐸1 = = = −21.8x10−19 J
n2 12
21.8x10−19
𝐸1 = − = −13.6 𝑒𝑉
1.6x10−19
 For second orbit of hydrogen atom n=2 and Z=1,
13.6 13.6
𝐸2 = − 𝑛2
=− 22
= −3.4𝑒𝑉
 In 1922, Bohr was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics.
12.4.1 Energy levels
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM.
 The energy of an atom is the least (largest negative value) when its electron is revolving in an orbit closest to the
nucleus i.e., the one for which n = 1
 For n = 2, 3, ... the absolute value of the energy E is smaller, hence the energy is progressively larger in the outer
orbits.
 The lowest state of the atom, called the ground state, is that of the lowest energy, with the electron revolving in
the orbit of smallest radius, the Bohr radius, a0.
 The energy of this state (n = 1), E1 is –13.6 eV. Therefore,
 The minimum energy required to free the electron from the ground state of the hydrogen atom is called the
ionisation energy of the hydrogen atom. And its value is 13.6 eV.

 At room temperature, most of the hydrogen atoms are in ground state. When a hydrogen atom receives energy by
processes such as electron collisions, the atom may acquire sufficient energy to raise the electron to higher energy
states. The atom is then said to be in an excited state.
 For n = 2; the energy E2 = –3.40 eV. It means that the energy required to excite an electron in hydrogen atom to its
first excited state,(n=2) is E2 – E1 = –3.40 eV – (–13.6) eV = 10.2 eV.
 Similarly, E3 = –1.51 eV and E3 – E1 = 12.09 eV, or to excite the hydrogen atom from its ground state (n = 1) to
second excited state (n = 3), 12.09 eV energy is required, and so on.
 From these excited states the electron can then fall back to a state of lower energy, emitting a photon in the
process.

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Limitations of Bhor’s theory

1. The Bohr model is applicable only to hydrogenic (single electron) atoms. It cannot be extended to even
to two electron atoms such as helium.
2. The model is unable to explain the relative intensities of the frequencies in the spectrum for hydrogen
atom.
3. It could not explain the fine structure of spectral lines
4. It could not explain the stark effect.
5. It could not explain the Zeeman effect.

de-Broglie’s explanation of Bhor’s quantaization rule of angular momentum.

According to de-Broglie, the electron in a circular orbit around the nucleus exhibits wave nature. For an
electron moving in nth circular orbit of radius rn the total distance is the circumference of the orbit, thus
2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … .. 1
Where λ is the de-Broglie wavelength of the electron moving in nth orbit.
𝑕
We have de-Broglie wavelength, 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 ..........(2)
𝑕
Substitute eqn (2) in eqn (1) we get 2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑚𝑣
𝑕
𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
2𝜋
𝑕
Angular moment , 𝐿 = 𝑛 2𝜋 ∵ 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑛

This is the Bohr’s quantization rule.

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13. NUCLEI

13.1 Introduction 13.5 Nuclear Force

13.2 Atomic Masses and Composition of Nucleus 13.6 Radioactivity
13.3 Size of the Nucleus 13.7 Nuclear Energy
13.4 Mass-Energy and Nuclear Binding Energy

13.1 Introduction
An atom has a nucleus. The nucleus is positively charged. The radius of the nucleus is smaller than the
radius of an atom by a factor of about 104. More than 99.9% mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.

13.2 ATOMIC MASSES AND COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS

The atomic mass unit (u), is defined as 1/12th of the mass of the neutral carbon (6C12) atom.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 C 12 atom
1𝑢 = since mass of 6.023 X 1023 atoms of C12 is 12 g
12
12𝑔
Mass of 1 atom of C12 = 6.023 𝑋 10 23
1 12𝑔
∴ 1𝑢 =
12 6.023 𝑋 1023
1𝑢 = 1.660539𝑋 10−27 𝑘𝑔 = 1.6605𝑋 10−27 𝑘𝑔

 Protons and neutrons constituents of the nucleus. Protons and neutrons together called nucleons.
 Protons are positively charged of charge +e=+1.6X10-19C.
 Mass of proton mp=1.6726 X 10-27kg=1.00727u
 Neutrons are electrically neutral.
 Mass of neutron mn=1.6749 X 10-27kg=1.00866u
 Nuclear species or nuclides are shown by the notation 𝑨𝒁𝑿 or ZXA where X is the chemical symbol of the
species, A is the mass number ( total number of nucleons or total number of proton and neutron) and Z
is the atomic number (number of protons inside the nucleus or number of electrons outside the nucleus)
 Isotopes: these are the nuclei having same atomic number but different mass number.
Example: 1H1, 1H2 and 1H3 are the isotope of hydrogen.
 Isobars: these are the nuclei having same mass number but different atomic number.
Example: 1H3 and 2He3
 Isotones: these are the nuclei having same neutron number but different atomic number.
Example: 1H3 and 2He4

Discovery of neutron by Chadwick: Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. He observed
that the emission of neutral radiations, when beryllium nuclei were bombarded with alpha particles and were
found to consist of a new type of neutral particles, having mass nearly that of a proton. These particles were
called neutrons and are denoted by 0n1.
Characteristics of nucleus:
1. Nuclear size: experimentally it is found that the volume of the nucleus is directly proportional to its
atomic mass number(A) i.e. V∝ A. If R is the average radius of the nucleus then
4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅 3 ∝ 𝐴
3
1
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴 3
Where R0 is a constant. Its value is 1.2 X 10-15m = 1.2fermi.

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2. Nuclear density: it is the ratio of nuclear mass to the nuclear volume. The density of nucleus is a constant
independent of A. The density of the nucleus is approximately 2.3 X 1017 kg m-3.
3. Nuclear charge: It is the total charge of the proton present in the nucleus.
Nuclear charge = +Ze where Z is number of protons and e is the charge on the proton.
4. Nuclear mass: It is the sum of the masses of the proton and neutrons present in the nucleus.

13.4 MASS-ENERGY AND NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY

Mass – Energy Relation: according to Einstein’s theory of relativity, mass and energy are equivalent. The
energy equivalent of mass is given by: E=mC2. Where C is the velocity of light, E is the energy equivalent
of mass m. C=2.9979 X 108 ms-1.
Example 13.2 Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.
Solution: Energy, E = 10–3 × (3 × 108)2 J
E = 10–3 × 9 × 1016 = 9 × 1013 J. Thus, if one gram of matter is converted to energy, there is a release of
enormous amount of energy.

Mass defect (∆M):

It is the difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents (proton and neutron) is called the mass defect.
Mass defect ∆𝑀 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + 𝐴 − 𝑍 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀 where Z –atomic number (number of proton), A- mass
number, mp – mass of proton, mn-mass of neutron and M is mass of the nucleus.

For example, let us consider 8O16; a nucleus which has 8 neutrons and 8 protons.
We have Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866 u
Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727 u
Mass of 8 electrons = 8 × 0.00055 u
Therefore the expected mass of 8O16nucleus = 8 × 2.01593 u = 16.12744 u. The atomic mass of 8O16found from mass
spectroscopy experiments is seen to be 15.99493 u. Substracting the mass of 8 electrons (8 × 0.00055 u) from this, we
get the experimental mass of 8O16nucleus to be 15.99053 u. Thus, we find that the mass of the 8O16nucleus is less than
the total mass of its constituents by 0.13691u.( ∆M).

Find the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit, first in Joules and then in MeV
Solution: 1u = 1.6605 × 10–27 kg
To convert it into energy units, we multiply it by C2 and find that energy equivalent (E=mC2)
= 1.6605 × 10–27 × (2.9979 × 108)2 kg m2/s2
= 1.4924 × 10–10 J
1.4924 × 10 −10
= 𝑒𝑣
1.602 𝑋10 −19
= 0.9315 X10 ev = 931.5 X106 ev
9

= 931.5 Mev
𝟏𝒖 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏. 𝟓 𝐌𝐞𝐯, that is energy equivalent of 1u is 931.5 Mev

Nuclear binding energy(𝑬𝒃 ): The amount of energy required to hold the nucleons together inside the
nucleus is called nuclear binding energy.
Binding energy: 𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑚 𝐶 2 where ∆𝑚 is the binding energy and C is the velocity of light.
Binding energy per nucleon or specific binding energy: It is the ratio of binding energy of a nucleus to the
number of nucleons (mass number) present in it is called the binding energy per nucleon .
Binding energy 𝐸𝑏
Binding energy per nucleon(Ebn ) = =
mass number A
It is the average energy required to remove one nucleon from the nucleus.

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Higher the specific binding energy implies more stability of the nucleus.

BINDING ENERGY CURVE: Binding energy curve is the curve obtained by plotting binding energy per
nucleon versus mass number A of various atoms.

Features of binding energy curve:

1. The binding energy per nucleon, Ebn, is practically constant, i.e. practically independent of the atomic
number for nuclei of middle mass number ( 30 < A < 170). The curve has a maximum of about 8.75
MeV for A = 56 and has a value of 7.6 MeV for A = 238.
2. Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy nuclei (A>170).
Conclusions of binding energy curve.
1. The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a binding energy of a few MeV per nucleon.
2. The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30 < A < 170 is a consequence of the fact that the
nuclear force is short-ranged.

3. Binding energy curve will give a clue about energy released in the nuclear fission process.
A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per nucleon compared to that of a nucleus with A = 120. Thus
if a nucleus A = 240 breaks into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons get more tightly bound.
4. The binding energy curve gives a clue about the energy released in a nuclear fusion of two lighter nuclei.
Consider two very light nuclei (A≤ 10) joining to form a heavier nucleus. The binding energy per nucleon of the fused
heavier nuclei is more than the binding energy per nucleon of the lighter nuclei. This means that the final system is more
tightly bound than the initial system. Again energy would be released in such a process of fusion.

Nuclear force: The force that hold the nucleons together inside the nucleus are called nuclear force.

Characteristics of nuclear force:

1. Nuclear forces are strongest force in nature.
The nuclear force between the two protons inside the nucleus is 100 times stronger than the electrostatic force and 1038 times
stronger than the gravitational force.
2. They are extremely short range forces.
The force come into play only within a distance of 10 -14 m and become ero beyond this.
3. They are charge independent.
The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-proton is approximately the same. The nuclear force does not
depend on the electric charge
4. Nuclear force shows the property of saturation.
That is each nucleon exerts a force only on its nearest neighbours.
5. They are spin dependent.
The nuclear force between two nucleons having parallel spin (↑↑) is stronger than the force between the two nucleons having
anti-parallel spin (↑↓).
6. They are non-central force.
They do not act along the line joining the centres of nucleons.

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7. They are exchange force.

Protons and neutrons are inter-converted by exchanging some particles called Π mesons. Within the nucleus, a proton do not remain
permanently as proton and a neutron do not remain permanently as neutron they keep on changing into each other by exchange Π mesons.
Attractive as well as repulsive forces come into lay due to this particle exchange and prevent the nucleus from collapsing.

RADIOACTIVITY: The phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration of the unstable nuclei of heavy

elements with the emission of certain radiation is called radioactivity.
 H. Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 accidentally.
 Bequerel’s observations: While studying the fluorescence and phosphorescence of compounds irradiated with
visible light, Becquerel observed an interesting phenomenon. After illuminating some pieces of uranium-
potassium sulphate with visible light, he wrapped them in black paper and separated the package from a
photographic plate by a piece of silver. When, after several hours of exposure, the photographic plate was
developed, it showed blackening due to something that must have been emitted by the compound and was able to
penetrate both black paper and the silver.
 Experiments performed subsequently showed that radioactivity was a nuclear phenomenon in which an unstable
nucleus undergoes a decay. This is referred to as radioactive decay.
 Three types of radioactive decay occur in nature:
 (i) α-decay in which a helium nucleus 2He is emitted;
4

 (ii) β-decay in which electrons or positrons (particles with the same mass as electrons, but with a charge exactly
opposite to that of electron) are emitted;
 (iii) γ-decay in which high energy (hundreds of keV or more) photons are emitted.

13.7 NUCLEAR ENERGY

Disintegration energy or Q-value of nuclear reaction.
It is the difference in the initial mass energy of radioactive substance and the total mass energy of the decay
products.
It is given by, 𝑄 = 𝑀𝑋 − 𝑀𝑌 − 𝑀𝛼 𝐶 2
Where MX is the mass of the parent nucleus, MY is the mass of the daughter nucleus, Mα is the mass of alpha
particle.
Nuclear fission:
It is the process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two light nuclei of comparable masses. During this process,
enormous amount of energy is released
The energy released is due to the conversion of portion of mass of nucleus in to energy.

Example: if 235
92𝑈 is bombarded by a slow neutron, an isotope of uranium is formed which may break up into barium
and krypton as follows
235 1 235 144 89 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 → 92𝑈 → 56 𝐵𝑎 + 36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

In this reaction, a mass difference of 0.2154u occurs. This is equivalent to an energy (Q-value) of 200 MeV is
released.

Nuclear fusion or thermonuclear reaction.

It is the process of combining two light nuclei into single nucleus. During this process, a large
amount of energy is released.
Two light nuclei combined to form a heavier nucleus only when they come closer to one another. To
bring the nuclei together is difficult task because of the strong coulomb repulsive forces between the
positively charged nuclei. To overcome the coulomb repulsive force between the positively charged nuclei,
high temperature of the order of 109k is needed. Thus fusion reaction requires very high temperature and
hence they are called thermonuclear reactions
Example:

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two protons combine to form a deuteron and a positron with a release of 0.42MeV energy
1
1𝐻 + 11𝐻 → 21𝐻 + 𝑒 + + 𝜈 + 0.42𝑀𝑒𝑉

Two deuterons combine to form the light isotope of helium

2
1𝐻 + 21𝐻 → 32𝐻 𝑒 + 10𝑛 + 3.27𝑀𝑒𝑣

Two deuterons combine to form a triton and a proton:

2
1𝐻 + 21𝐻 → 31𝐻 + 11𝐻 + 4.03𝑀𝑒𝑉

Four hydrogen atoms combine to form an 42𝐻𝑒 atom with a release of 26.7 MeV of energy.

4 11𝐻 + 4𝑒 − → 4
2𝐻 𝑒 + 2𝑒 − + 2𝜈 + 6𝛾 + 26.7𝑀𝑒𝑉

Difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

Fission Fusion
1 It is the process of splitting of a heavy It is the process of combining the two light
nucleus into two light nuclei of comparable nuclei into single nucleus.
masses.
2 Fission can take place at room Fusion takes place only at higher temperature.
temperature
3 Energy released per unit mass of the Energy released per unit mass of the reactant
reactant is less is more.
4 Energy released per reaction is more Energy released per reaction is less
5 Can be controlled Cannot be controlled.
6 Products are harmful Products are harmless

Q. What are isotopes? Give example.

Q. What are isobars? Give example.
Q. What is the ratio of nuclear densities of two nuclei having mass number in the ratio 1:3?
Q. What is the order of the density of a nucleus?
Q. Define mass defect and binding energy. Write the relation between them.
Q. Define specific binding energy.
Q. Mention the element which has highest specific binding energy.
Q. What is a nuclear force? Mention its properties.
Q. Fusion reaction requires very high temperature. Why?
Q. The decay of proton to neutron is possible only inside the nucleus. Why?
Q. A radioactive element 92U238 undergoes 𝛼-decay giving rise to thorium. What is the mass number of
daughter nuclide?
Q. Write the nuclear reaction equation for alpha decay of 92U238.

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