Chapter 12: Electrostatics

Introduction

The study of electricity is done in two categories

1. Electrostatics
2. Current Electricity
By Electrostatics we mean the study of electric charges at rest under the action of
electric forces.

Electric force: An electric force is the one which holds the positive and negative
charges that make up the atoms and molecules. Since our body is composed
entirely of atoms and molecules hence our existence to electric forces.

Understanding Charge: All matter comprises atoms, which consist of protons,

neutrons, and electrons. Protons, found in the nucleus, carry a positive charge,
while neutrons are neutral. Electrons, negatively charged, orbit the nucleus.
Electric charge is an innate property of these subatomic particles, forming the basis
of electrical phenomena.

Friction and Charging: Charging through friction, known as the Triboelectric

Effect, occurs when two materials rub against each other. This process leads to the
transfer of electrons due to variations in electron affinity. For example, when
rubbing a rubber rod with fur, electrons move from the fur to the rod, resulting in
the rod becoming negatively charged and the fur positively charged.

Quantifying Charge: Charge is quantified in Coulombs (C). One Coulomb is

defined as the charge that experiences a force of 9 x 109 N when placed one meter
from an equal charge in a vacuum. It also represents the charge carried by a current
of 1 Ampere for 1 second. Moreover, one Coulomb corresponds to approximately
6.25 x 1018 electrons. Charge is conserved and exists in discrete units, with the
charge of a single electron being 1.602 x 10-19 Coulombs.

Charge Distribution: Charge distribution is described by surface charge density (

∆𝑄 ∆𝑄 ∆𝑄
∆𝐴
), volume charge density ( ∆𝑉 ), and linear charge density ( ∆𝑉 ).

Electric Fields and Forces: An electric field is a region where a charged object
experiences a force due to other charges. The force on a charged particle in an
electric field is proportional to its charge and the field strength, given by F = qE.
The acceleration of a charged particle in an electric field is determined by a =
qE/m, where m is the particle's mass.

Electrification: Electrification involves imparting charge to an object. It can be

achieved through friction, conduction (direct contact), or induction (without direct
contact, using the influence of an electric field).
 Coulomb's Law
Overview: We all know that there are two types of charges (The intrinsic property
of fundamental particles i.e. electrons and protons due to which they can exhibit
attraction or repulsion).
1. Positive charge
2. Negative charge
The S.I Unit of charge is Coulomb (C) and the quantity of electrons in Coulomb
charge is 6.25 * 10^18 electrons

Electric force and its types: As discussed earlier an electric force is the one which
holds the positive and negative charges in atoms and molecules. There are two
types of electric forces
1. Repulsive Force: Between similar charges (e.g., electrons).
2. Attractive Force: Between different charges (e.g., electron and proton).

Note: Basic Law of Electrostatics is that “Like charges repel, unlike charges
attract."

Introduction to Coulomb’s Law: Coulomb’s Law deals with the study of the
quantitative nature of force between two particles. In 1784, Charles Coulomb, a
French military engineer, formulated Coulomb's Law to measure the force between
two charges.

Coulomb's Law Statement:

“Force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is directly proportional to the
product of their magnitudes and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.”
 Explanation: The statement asserts Coulomb's Law, describing the interaction
between two charged objects. It states that the force of attraction or repulsion
between these charges is determined by two key factors. Firstly, the strength of the
force is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges
involved – larger charges result in a stronger force. Secondly, the force is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the charges. This means that as
the distance increases, the force weakens, and as the distance decreases, the force
strengthens. Essentially, Coulomb's Law provides a framework for understanding
how electric charges influence each other, influencing the nature and strength of
their interaction.

𝑞1𝑞2
Mathematical Representation: 𝐹 ∝ 2 ​
𝑟

𝑞1𝑞2
Final Formula: 𝐹 = 𝐾 2
𝑟

Let's break down the different terms:

1. F:
This represents the electrostatic force between the two charges. The
direction of the force depends on the nature of the charges – it's attractive if
the charges are opposite (one positive and one negative), and repulsive if the
charges are the same (both positive or both negative).
2. 𝑞1𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2:

These are the magnitudes of the two charges involved. The formula suggests
that the force is directly proportional to the product of these magnitudes.
Larger charges result in a stronger force of attraction or repulsion.
3. r:
This is the separation distance between the centers of the two charged
objects. The formula indicates that the force is inversely proportional to the
square of this distance. In simpler terms, as the distance between the charges
increases, the force weakens, and as the distance decreases, the force
strengthens.

Coulomb Constant (K): Coulomb's constant, denoted by k, is a proportionality

constant that appears in Coulomb's Law, describing the electrostatic interaction
between charged objects. It depends on the system of units and the nature of the
medium between charges. In the International System of Units (SI), where charge
is measured in coulombs (C) and distance in meters (m) its most standard value is
9*109 Nm2C-2.
Now let us discuss the value of k and permittivity of free space ε𝑜.
1
In free space, 𝐾 = 4πε𝑜

Here we see an important term that is ε𝑜.

Permittivity of Free Space (ε𝑜):

The symbol ε𝑜​ (epsilon naught) represents the permittivity of free space or

vacuum. It is a fundamental physical constant that appears in the context of

electromagnetism, particularly in the formulation of Coulomb's Law and the
description of electric fields. It reflects the ability of free space to permit the
transmission of electric field lines and influences how electric fields interact with
matter. Essentially, ε𝑜​quantifies the vacuum's ability to support the propagation of
electric fields.

Value: 8.85*1012 N-1m-2c2 in SI units.

Vectorial Form of Coulomb's Law: Since coulomb’s law is a mutual force hence
If a charge q1​ exerts a force on another charge q2​, q2​ also exerts an equal but
opposite force on q1​. Mathematically this can be represented as
𝑞1𝑞2 ^
𝐹12 = 𝑘 2 𝑟12
𝑟

𝑞1𝑞2 ^
𝐹21 = 𝑘 2 𝑟21
𝑟

Where 𝑟12 is the unit vector from first charge to second charge along the line

joining the two charges.

Effect of Medium on Coulomb Force: Insulating mediums like Teflon are

dielectrics which will introduce relative permittivity (εr​), the Coulomb force
formula becomes
1 𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹= 4πε𝑜ε𝑟 𝑟2
​.
Impact of εr​: Different dielectrics have distinct εr​values, greater than 1 (except for
vacuum and air).

Explanation:
Insulating materials, such as Teflon, act as dielectrics, influencing the
Coulomb force formula through the introduction of relative permittivity (εr​).
This modifies the original formula ​. The role of εr​is crucial; it represents the
material's ability to permit the transmission of electric field lines. Different
dielectrics exhibit distinct εr​ values, always greater than 1 (except for
vacuum and air). A higher εr​amplifies the electric force between charges in
the material compared to what would occur in a vacuum. Understanding εr​is
fundamental in studying how electric fields interact with and propagate
through various insulating mediums.

Limitation of Coulomb's Law: Coulomb's law is valid only for point charges.

Explanation: Imagine Coulomb's Law like a tool to figure out how electric
charges, like little particles, interact. To keep the math simple, we pretend these
charges are super tiny and squished into one tiny point – we call them "point
charges." It's like saying, "Okay, let's forget about their size for now and just think
of them at one spot." This trick makes the math easier, especially when we're
dealing with objects much bigger than these tiny charges.

Principle of superposition: When we discuss the coulomb’s law we have to

discuss the principle of superposition. According to this principle we study the
vector phenomena of the forces acting on a charge. According to this principle the
total force acting on a given charge due to number of charges is the vector sum of
the individual forces acting on that charge due to all charges. If we consider
charges from 𝑞1........ 𝑞𝑛 then the net force acting on q will be

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3....... 𝐹𝑛

Electric Field
Overview: In physics most of the laws that we study are studied in a certain region
where we deal with a few certain particles and discuss their nature according to our
requirements and study. Just like all these electric forces and charges are studied in
a field called electric field. Michael Faraday introduced the concept of the electric
field. This field is a force field that exerts a force on charges in the field.

Electric Field Intensity: The force experienced by a unit positive charge at a point
in an electric field is called electric field intensity.
Explanation: In the world of physics, we often zoom in on specific situations to
get a better grip on forces and particles. Michael Faraday introduced the concept of
an electric field – think of it as an invisible force field surrounding charged objects.
This field exerts a force on charged particles, either pushing or pulling them. The
strength of this force is called electric field intensity. It's like measuring the force a
tiny positive charge would experience at a certain spot in the electric field. This
helps us understand how charges interact in a given space.

Unit: Newton per Coulomb (N/C)

𝐹
Formula: 𝐸 = 𝑞
, where E is a vector quantity along the direction of force.

In this formula:
● E represents the electric field intensity,
● F is the force experienced by the positive test charge,
● q​is the magnitude of the positive test charge.

Electric Field Intensity due to a Point Charge q: We can study the effects of
field by taking a point charge q as sample and we can study the different aspects of
electric laws in it. We can use Coulomb's Law to find the force (F) experienced by
𝑞𝑞𝑜
a test charge (𝑞𝑜​) in the field of charge q. As 𝐹 = 2
4πε𝑜ε𝑟𝑟
 Dependencies of E: The electric field intensity (E) at a point depends on three key
factors:

1. Magnitude of Charge (q):

The electric field intensity is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
charge (q). In simple terms, if you increase the charge at a point in the
electric field, the electric field intensity at that point will also increase. This
means that a larger charge will experience a stronger electric field.

2. Nature of Medium:
The medium in which the charges exist also influences the electric field
intensity. Different materials have different properties that affect how
electric fields interact with charges within them. This characteristic is
encapsulated in the concept of permittivity, which quantifies the ability of a
material to permit the transmission of electric field lines.

3. Distance from the Charge (r):

The electric field intensity is inversely proportional to the distance (r) from
the charge. As you move farther away from a charge, the electric field
weakens. This relationship follows the inverse square law, meaning that if
you double the distance, the electric field intensity decreases to one-fourth of
its original value. Essentially, the electric field spreads out as you move
away from the source charge.
 Electric Field Lines
In the world of electricity, electric field lines are like visual arrows showing us
which way the electric field is pushing or pulling. Michael Faraday came up with
this idea to help us "see" how electric forces work. Picture these lines as guides,
showing where the electric field is strong or weak around charged things. It's a
simple map that makes it easier to understand how electric forces behave.

Properties of Electric field lines

i) Direction from Charges:

Electric field lines originate from positive charges and terminate on negative
charges. This signifies the flow of the electric field from regions of higher
potential (positive charges) to lower potential (negative charges).

ii) Direction Indication:

The tangent to a field line at any point provides the direction of the electric
field intensity at that specific location. This property aids in understanding
the directional aspect of the electric field at various points.

iii) Field Strength Representation:

 Field lines are closer in regions with stronger electric fields and farther apart
where the field is weaker. The density of field lines reflects the intensity of
the electric field, with denser lines indicating a stronger field.

iv) Non-Crossing Nature:

No two field lines cross each other. At any given point, the electric field has
a unique direction. Crossing lines would imply conflicting directions, which
is inconsistent with the single-direction nature of the electric field.

v) Radial Direction for Point Charges:

● Field lines due to a positive point charge are directed radially outward.
● Field lines due to a negative point charge are directed radially inward.
This radial orientation illustrates the symmetrical nature of the electric field
around a point charge.

vi) Zero Field Spot:

In the middle region between two like charges, there is no electric field due
to the repulsion of like charges. This region is called the zero-field spot or
neutral zone. The absence of field lines in this area highlights the
cancellation of electric field effects due to the mutual repulsion of like
charges.

Equipotential surfaces:
● If every point of a surface is at same potential, then it is said to be an
equipotential surface
● The direction of electric field is perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces
or lines of force
 ● The equipotential surfaces produced by a point charge or a spherically
charge distribution are a family of concentric spheres.
● Equipotential surfaces can never cross each other.
● Work done in moving any charge over these surfaces is zero.

Xerography (Photocopying)

Introduction:
Xerography, derived from the Greek words "xeros" meaning dry and "graphein"
meaning writing, is a photocopying technology based on electrostatic principles.
This method creates copies of documents by transferring their images onto a
photoconductive drum coated with selenium.

Process:
1. Image Transfer: The document's image is projected onto the drum, creating
bright and dark spots corresponding to the document's content.
2. Drum Composition: The drum, typically made of aluminum and coated
with selenium, functions as a light-dependent resistor (LDR) that retains a
positive charge in darkness.
3. Image Creation: The bright spots on the drum lose their positive charge
when exposed to light, forming a positive charge document image.
4. Toner Application: Negatively charged toner particles are sprayed over the
drum, adhering to the positively charged areas of the document image.
5. Transfer to Paper: The toner image is electrostatically transferred from the
drum to a sheet of paper.
6. Fusing the Image: The toner is fused onto the paper using heated pressure
rollers, creating a permanent copy.
 Inkjet Printing

Introduction:
Inkjet printing is a digital printing technology that ejects ink droplets onto paper
through tiny nozzles. This method is commonly used in both home and office
printers for its versatility and affordability.

Process:
1. Ink Ejection: Ink is ejected from a nozzle in a thin stream at high speed.
2. Electrical Components: The ink stream passes through two key electrical
components: the charging electrode and the deflection plates.
3. Charging Electrode: This component gives the ink stream a net charge,
which is controlled by instructions from the computer.
4. Deflection Plates: Charged ink droplets are directed towards the paper by
charged deflection plates, while uncharged droplets pass through without
deflection.
5. Paper Deposition: The charged ink droplets strike the paper, forming the
desired image.
Through these processes, xerography and inkjet printing provide efficient means of
reproducing documents, each with its own set of advantages and applications.

Electric Flux and Gauss's Law

Introduction:
Electric flux is a measure of the amount of electric field passing through a given
surface. It is a fundamental concept in electromagnetism and is closely related to
Gauss's Law, a powerful tool for calculating electric fields.
 Electric Flux

Definition:
Electric flux (Φ) through a surface is defined as the product of the electric field
strength (E) and the area of the surface (A) projected perpendicular to the field
lines. Mathematically:
Φ = EA cos θ
where θ is the angle between the electric field vector and the normal vector to the
surface.

Important Points:
● Scalar Quantity:
Electric flux is a scalar quantity, meaning it has magnitude but no
direction.

● Direction:
The direction of the electric flux is determined by the direction of the
electric field lines.

● Flux Lines:
The number of flux lines passing through a surface is proportional to
the magnitude of the electric flux.

● Surface Orientation:
The electric flux is maximum when the surface is perpendicular to the
electric field lines (θ = 0°) and zero when the surface is parallel to the
electric field lines (θ = 90°).
 ● Significance of Electric Flux:
● Source or Sink:
The number of electric flux lines leaving or entering a closed
surface indicates the presence of a source (positive charge) or a
sink (negative charge) within the surface.
● Charge Conservation:
The net electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to
the total charge enclosed within the surface, which reflects the
principle of charge conservation.

Gauss's Law

Statement:
Gauss's Law states that the total electric flux (Φ) through any closed surface is
proportional to the total charge (Q) enclosed within the surface. Mathematically:
Φ = ∮ E ⋅ dA = Q/ε₀
where ε₀ is the permittivity of free space.

Applications:
Calculating Electric Intensity: Gauss's Law can be used to calculate the electric
intensity at a point due to a charge distribution by carefully choosing a closed
surface (Gaussian surface) that passes through the point and encloses the charge
distribution.
Symmetry: Gauss's Law is particularly useful for situations with high symmetry,
like spherical, cylindrical, or planar charge distributions.

Applications of Gauss’s Law:

1. Electric Intensity Inside a Hollow Sphere:
For a uniformly charged hollow sphere, Gauss's Law can be applied to show
that the electric field inside the sphere is zero (E = 0).
2. Electric Intensity due to Infinite Sheet of Charge:
Using Gauss's Law, the electric field due to an infinite sheet of charge with
uniform surface charge density (σ) can be calculated as:

𝐸= ( ) σ
2ϵ𝑜
𝑟
^

3. Electric Intensity Between Two Charged Plates:

For two parallel plates with equal but opposite charges, Gauss's Law can be
used to determine the electric field between the plates as:

𝐸= ( )σ
ϵ𝑜
^
𝑟

where σ is the surface charge density on each plate.

Conclusion:
Gauss's Law is a powerful tool in electromagnetism that provides a fundamental
relationship between electric flux and the enclosed charge. It simplifies the
calculation of electric fields in situations with symmetry and has numerous
applications in various fields of physics and engineering.

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

Electric Potential:
Electric potential, denoted by V, is a crucial concept in electrostatics, representing
the electric potential energy per unit charge. Measured in volts (V), electric
potential is calculated using the formula V=ΔU/q, where ΔU is the electrostatic
potential energy and q is the charge. Essentially, it quantifies the work done per
unit charge in moving a positive test charge from infinity to a specific point within
an electric field. The electric potential serves as a scalar field, indicating the energy
distribution in an electric field without regard to the charge's path. A higher electric
potential signifies a greater potential energy per unit charge at a given point,
offering valuable insights into the behavior of charges in an electric field. The unit
of volt (V) is essential for understanding and quantifying this energy per charge
relationship, providing a standardized measure across diverse electrical systems
and applications.

Potential Difference:
Potential difference, symbolized as ΔV, represents the work done in moving a
charge from one point to another while maintaining equilibrium against an electric
field. Measured in volts (V), potential difference is calculated using the formula
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 where 𝑉𝐵 is the potential at point B, and 𝑉𝐴 is the potential at point

A. This expression captures the energy change per unit charge between two points
in an electric field. Alternatively, potential difference can be expressed as ΔV=
−E⋅Δr, where E is the electric field strength, and Δr is the distance traveled. This
formula emphasizes the role of the electric field in influencing the potential
difference and provides a straightforward method for calculating it based on the
electric field and the displacement along the field. The unit of volt (V) serves as a
standardized measure for quantifying potential differences, facilitating consistent
analysis and understanding of electrical systems.
Volt (SI Unit):
Electric potential, symbolized by V, is defined as the amount of work done in
carrying a unit positive charge of one coulomb from one point to another at rest. In
simpler terms, it represents one joule of work done per coulomb of charge moved.
The unit of electric potential is the volt (V), and the relationship is expressed as 1
joule/coloumb = 1 volt. This highlights the energy transfer involved in moving a
charge against an electric field and provides a standardized measure for quantifying
electric potential in various contexts. The symbol V is used to represent electric
potential in equations and discussions related to electrostatics. Understanding
electric potential in terms of work done per unit charge is fundamental to analyzing
electrical systems and circuits.

Potential Gradient:
The potential gradient is defined as the maximum rate of change of potential with
respect to distance in an electric field. Expressed in volts per meter (V/m), it
quantifies how rapidly the electric potential changes as one moves through space.
In a uniform electric field between oppositely charged parallel plates, the electric
∆𝑉
field strength (E) is directly related to the potential gradient: 𝐸 =− ∆𝑟
​ This

relationship emphasizes the role of the potential gradient in determining the

strength of the electric field, showcasing its importance in understanding and
characterizing electric fields. The unit of volt per meter (V/m) provides a
standardized measure for assessing the potential gradient, facilitating consistent
analysis across different field configurations.

Electron Volt (eV):

Electron volt is a unit of energy representing the amount of energy gained or lost
by an electron when it undergoes a potential difference of one volt.
Mathematically, it is expressed as 1 eV=1.6×10-19 J, where e is the elementary
charge (1.6×10-19 C). This unit is particularly useful in describing energy changes
on an atomic or subatomic scale, providing a convenient measure for the energy
associated with charged particle movements.

Gravitational force and electric force

Particulars Gravitational force Electrostatic force
Formula 𝐺𝑚1𝑚2 1 𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹𝑔 = 2 𝐹𝑒 = 4πϵ𝑜 𝑟2
𝑟

Range Infinite Infinite

Symbol of constant G 𝑘=
1
4πϵ𝑜

Value of constant Very Small Fairly large

Nature Always attractive Attractive or repulsive
Dependence Medium independent Medium dependent
Relative strength Weak: Can be felt with Strong at close range
massive object

Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

Introduction:
Robert Millikan's oil drop experiment, conducted in 1909, was a groundbreaking
experiment that led to the precise determination of the elementary charge, the
fundamental unit of electric charge, carried by a single electron. This experiment
played a pivotal role in establishing the quantized nature of electric charge and
solidified our understanding of atomic structure.
Experimental Setup and Procedure:
● Atomization:
Fine oil droplets are sprayed into a chamber containing air. These
droplets acquire a small electric charge through friction with the
atomizer nozzle or due to interactions with air molecules.

● Plates and Electric Field:

The chamber houses two horizontal parallel plates, separated by a
known distance 'd'. A potential difference 'V' is applied across these
plates, creating a uniform electric field 'E' between them.

● Droplet Suspension:
By carefully adjusting the potential difference, an oil droplet can be
suspended in mid-air between the plates. This occurs when the upward
electric force acting on the charged droplet exactly balances the
downward gravitational force.

Derivation and Analysis:

● Forces:
○ Gravitational Force (F₁):
F₁ = mg, where 'm' is the mass of the droplet and 'g' is the
acceleration due to gravity.
○ Electric Force (Fe):
Fe = qE, where 'q' is the charge on the droplet and 'E' is the
electric field strength.
● Equilibrium:
 When the droplet is suspended, these forces are equal: 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑒, or mg

= qE.

● Electric Field:
The electric field strength between the plates is given by E = V/d,
where 'V' is the potential difference and 'd' is the distance between the
plates.

● Charge:
Substituting the expression for 'E' into the equilibrium equation, we
get: mg = q(V/d).
Rearranging this equation to solve for 'q', the charge on the droplet,
gives us: q = (mgd) / V.

● Terminal Velocity:
Millikan also measured the terminal velocity of the droplets as they
fell through the air. This allowed him to calculate the droplet's mass
and radius, which are necessary to calculate the charge using the
equation above.

Results and Significance:

Millikan found that the charge on the droplets was always a multiple of a
fundamental unit of charge, which he determined to be 1.602 x 10⁻¹⁹ Coulombs.
This fundamental unit of charge is now known as the charge of a single electron.
The experiment confirmed the quantized nature of electric charge, meaning that
charge exists in discrete packets, not as a continuous quantity. This discovery was
crucial in supporting the idea of the atom as a fundamental unit of matter,
containing discrete, charged particles like electrons.

Capacitor and Capacitance:

1. Capacitor Definition and Construction:

A capacitor is a device designed for storing charge and electrical energy. It
typically consists of two parallel plates with opposite charges connected to a
potential difference V. Let Q be the charge on either plate. Capacitance (C) is
directly proportional to the potential difference (V), represented by the equation
Q=CV.

2. Capacitance:
Capacitance is the measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. It is defined as
𝑄
𝐶= 𝑉
​ and is measured in farads (F), with 1 farad being the capacitance when a

charge of 1 coulomb produces a potential difference of 1 volt.

3. Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor:

Consider a parallel plate capacitor with two metal plates (area A) separated by
distance d.
● Case A: Air or Vacuum Between Plates: If Q is the charge and V is the potential
ϵ𝑜𝐴
difference, the capacitance (𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑐) is given by 𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝐷
​, where ϵ𝑜 is the

permittivity of free space.

● Dielectric Constant (ϵr​): The dielectric constant is the ratio of capacitance with a
dielectric to capacitance with air as the medium. It is denoted by ϵr​and has no unit.
ϵ𝑜ϵ𝑟𝐴
The formula is 𝐶𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝐷
​.
𝐶𝑚𝑒𝑑
● Dielectric Constant Relation: ​ϵ𝑟 = 𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑐

Separation is increasing
Quantity Battery is removed Battery remains
Capacity Decreases because Decreases because
1
C= 𝑑 i.e. 𝐶2 < 𝐶1 i.e.
𝐶2 < 𝐶1

Charge Remains constant because Decreases because

a battery is not present. i.e. battery is present i.e
𝑞1 = 𝑞2 𝑞2 < 𝑞1.
Potential difference Increases because 𝑉 =
𝑞 𝑉2 = 𝑉1
𝑐
1
⇒ 𝑉∝ 𝐶 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉2 > 𝑉1 ( Since battery maintains
the potential difference )
Electric field Remains constant because Decrease because
𝑞
E = 𝐴ϵ
σ 𝑞 𝑜
𝐸= = 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐸2 = 𝐸1
ϵ𝑜 𝐴ϵ𝑜 and
𝐸∝𝑞
𝐸2 < 𝐸1

Energy 𝑞
2
Decreases because
Increases because 𝑈 = 2𝐶 1 2
1 𝑈= 2
𝐶𝑉
𝑈∝ i.e. 𝑈2 > 𝑈1
𝐶 Here 𝑈∝𝐶 i.e. 𝑈2 < 𝑈1

Separation is decreasing
Quantity Battery is removed Battery remains
connected
Capacity Increases because Increases because
1 𝐶2 > 𝐶1
C∝ 𝑑 i.e. 𝐶2 > 𝐶1

Charge Remains constant because Increases because battery

a battery is not present. i.e. is present i.e 𝑞2 > 𝑞1.
𝑞2 = 𝑞1 Remaining charge
𝑞2 − 𝑞1 supplied from
 the battery.
Potential difference Decreases because 𝑉 =
𝑞 𝑉2 = 𝑉1
𝑐
1
⇒ 𝑉∝ 𝐶 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉2 < 𝑉1 ( Since battery maintains
the potential difference )
𝐶2 > 𝐶1

Electric field Remains constant because Increases because

σ 𝑞 𝑞
𝐸 = ϵ = 𝐴ϵ 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐸2 = 𝐸1 E = 𝐴ϵ
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜

and 𝑞2 > 𝑞1 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝐸2 > 𝐸1

Energy Decreases because Increases because

2 2
𝑞 1
𝑈= 𝑈= 2
𝐶𝑉
2𝐶
Here 𝐶2 > 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 = 𝑞1 Here
𝐶2 > 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 𝑉1
i.e. 𝑈2 < 𝑈1
i.e. 𝑈2 > 𝑈1

Series Grouping Parallel Grouping

Capacitors are said to be connected in The capacitors are said to be connected
series between two points when we can in parallel between any two points if
proceed from one point to the other we proceed from one point to the other
only through one path. along different paths.
Or Or
In series, the grouping charge on each In parallel grouping potential
capacitor remains same and equals to difference across each capacitor
the main charge supplied by the battery remains same and equal to the applied
but potential difference across them potential difference while charge on
may or may not be the same. them may or may not be the same.
Charge on each capacitor remains same Potential difference across each
and equals to the main charge supplied capacitor remains same and equals to
by the battery the applied potential difference
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3

Equivalent capacitance: Equivalent capacitance:

1 1 1 1
𝐶
= 𝐶
+ 𝐶
+ 𝐶
or
𝑒𝑞 1 2 3 𝐶𝑒𝑞=𝐶1+𝐶2+𝐶3
−1 −1 −1
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 )

In series combination potential In parallel combination charge and

difference and energy distribution is in energy distributes in the ratio of
the reverse ratio of capacitance i.e. capacitance
1
𝑉∝ 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃. 𝐸∝ 𝐶
1 i.e. Q∝C and P.E∝C

If two capacitors having capacitances If two capacitors having capacitances

𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are connected in series then 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are connected in parallel then
𝐶1𝐶2 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1+ 𝐶2
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1+𝐶2
 If n identical capacitors each having If n identical capacitors each having
capacitances C are connected in series capacitances C are connected in
with supplied voltage V then equivalent parallel with supplied voltage V then
𝐶
capacitance 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛 . equivalent capacitance 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝐶.

4. Energy Stored in Capacitor:

A capacitor stores energy in the form of electric potential energy. The energy
1 2
stored (E) can be calculated using ( E⋅A⋅d ): 2
𝐶𝑉 or the energy density formula

where E is the electric field, A is the area, d is the separation, and C is capacitance.

Polarization in Materials and Dielectrics

Introduction:
Polarization is a fundamental phenomenon in materials subjected to an electric
field. It refers to the appearance of opposite charges on the surface of a material,
induced by the external field. These charges are known as induced charges or
polarization charges.

Types of Polarization:
● Polar Molecules:
These molecules possess permanent dipoles, meaning they have a
separation of positive and negative charges due to their inherent
structure. For example, in sodium chloride (NaCl), the sodium end
 carries a positive charge, while the chlorine end carries a negative
charge.

● Non-Polar Molecules:
These molecules do not have permanent dipoles in their normal state.
However, they can become temporarily polarized when subjected to
an external electric field, inducing a separation of charge within the
molecule. Examples include plastic materials.

Electric Field Effects on Polar Molecules:

● Torque:
Polar molecules experience a torque when placed in a uniform electric
field, attempting to align their dipoles with the field direction.

● Net Force:
While polar molecules experience a torque, in a uniform field, they
experience zero net force.

● Dielectrics:
Definition: Dielectrics are non-polar insulators, meaning they do not
conduct electricity readily.
Polarization:
When a dielectric material is subjected to an electric field, its molecules
become polarized, creating an internal electric field that opposes the applied
field. This phenomenon is crucial for the behavior of capacitors.

Equilibrium:
This situation reaches a static equilibrium, where the applied field and the
internal field due to the polarized dielectric reach a balance.

Effect of Dielectrics on Electrical Quantities:

Here are the effects of dielectrics on electrical quantities in point form:
● Electric Field (E):
The electric field strength (E) between capacitor plates decreases
when a dielectric is inserted. This is because the polarization of the
dielectric creates an internal electric field that opposes the applied
field, effectively reducing the overall field strength.

● Force (F):
The force (F) experienced by charges within the electric field
decreases. This is a direct consequence of the reduced electric field
strength. Since F = qE, a lower E leads to a smaller force.

● Potential Difference (V):

The potential difference (V) across the capacitor decreases. This is
because V = Ed, and a reduced electric field leads to a lower potential
difference.
 ● Capacitance (C):
The capacitance (C) of the capacitor increases. This is because
capacitance is defined as C = Q/V. While the charge (Q) stored on the
capacitor remains constant, the reduced potential difference (V) leads
to an increase in capacitance.

Effect of Polarization on Capacitance:

Increased Capacitance: The polarization of the dielectric material effectively

increases the capacitance of a capacitor.
Explanation: The induced charges on the dielectric surface effectively "hold" more
charge on the capacitor plates, enabling a larger charge storage capacity for a given
potential difference.

Points to Ponder:
● Dielectric Constant (εr):
The dielectric constant, εr, for all dielectrics is greater than 1 (except for air).
A higher dielectric constant indicates a stronger ability of the material to
polarize and therefore a larger capacitance increase.

● Electron Displacement:
In dielectric materials, the electrons remain bound to their atoms. The
polarization arises from the displacement of these electrons within their
atomic orbits, not the flow of free electrons as in conductors.
 Spherical capacitor Cylindrical Capacitor

It consists of two concentric conducting It consists of two concentric cylinders

spheres of radii a and b (a<b). Inner of radii a and b (a<b), inner cylinder is
sphere is given charge +Q, while the given charge +Q while outer cylinder is
outer sphere is earthed. earthed.

𝑎𝑏 2πε𝑜𝑙
Capacitance: C=4πε𝑜 Capacitance: C=
𝑎−𝑏 ( )
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑎
𝑏

In the presence of dielectric medium In the presence of dielectric medium

(dielectric constant k) between the (dielectric constant k) capacitance
spheres. increases by k times and
 2πε𝑜𝑘𝑙
Capacitance: C=
𝑎𝑏 ( )
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑎
𝑏
Capacitance: C=4πε𝑜𝑘 𝑎−𝑏

RC Circuit:

An RC circuit comprises a capacitor with capacitance C and a resistor with

resistance R.

Charging Process:

● Charging a capacitor involves the accumulation of electric charge on its

plates when connected to a voltage source.
● The process begins with the application of a voltage source (D.C supply) to
the capacitor. Electrons accumulate on one plate, creating a potential
difference across the capacitor.
● As the capacitor charges, the voltage across it increases while the current
flowing through the circuit decreases.
● The rate of charging depends on the product of resistance (R) and
capacitance (C). This is characterized by the time constant RC.
● The charging process follows an exponential growth curve, represented by
𝑡
− 𝑅𝐶
the equation 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑜(1 − 𝑒 ), where q is the charge on the capacitor at
 time t, Q is the total charge supplied by the D.C source, R is resistance, C is
capacitance, and t is time.

Discharging Process:

● Discharging a capacitor involves the release of stored electric charge from its
plates.
● The process begins by disconnecting the voltage source and connecting a
resistor across the capacitor.
● The stored charge begins to discharge through the resistor, creating a current
flow. As a result, the voltage across the capacitor decreases.
● The rate of discharging also depends on the product of resistance (R) and
capacitance (C), characterized by the time constant RC.
● The discharging process follows an exponential decay curve, represented by
𝑡

the equation 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑜(1 − 𝑒 ), where q is the charge remaining on the

𝑅𝐶

capacitor at time t, Q is the initial charge stored on the capacitor, R is

resistance, C is capacitance, and t is time.
 Comparison:

● In charging, the capacitor accumulates charge from the source until it

reaches its maximum capacity, represented by Q. In discharging, the
capacitor releases the stored charge until it completely discharges.
● Both processes follow exponential behaviors, but in opposite directions:
charging exhibits exponential growth, while discharging shows exponential
decay.
● The time constants RC determine the rate of charging and discharging. A
smaller time constant leads to faster charging or discharging, while a larger
time constant results in slower processes.

Time Constant in Charging and Discharging:

Definition:
● The time constant, denoted by RC, is a characteristic parameter in circuits
involving capacitors and resistors.
● It represents the time required for a charging or discharging capacitor to reach
approximately 63.2% of its maximum charge or to lose 63.2% of its initial charge.

Charging Time Constant:

● In charging circuits, the time constant (RC) determines how quickly a capacitor
charges up to its maximum charge (Q).
● A smaller time constant indicates rapid charging, while a larger time constant
implies slower charging.
● Mathematically, the charging time constant is the product of resistance (R) and
capacitance (C), expressed as RC.

Discharging Time Constant:

● Similarly, in discharging circuits, the time constant (RC) governs the rate at which
a capacitor discharges its stored charge.
● A smaller time constant leads to faster discharge, while a larger time constant
results in slower discharge.
● The discharging time constant is also the product of resistance (R) and capacitance
(C), represented as RC.

Significance:
● The time constant provides insight into the dynamics of charging and discharging
processes in RC circuits.
● It helps in analyzing the transient behavior of capacitive circuits, indicating how
quickly they respond to changes in voltage or current.
● Engineers use the time constant to design circuits with desired charging or
discharging rates for various applications.

Time constant Charging Discharging

Characteristics Characteristics
Small Rapid Charging and Rapid charging and
Discharging discharging
Large Slow Charging and Slow charging and
Discharging discharging
These tables provide a concise overview of how capacitance and RC circuits are
influenced by changes in separation distance and time constant. They demonstrate
the inverse relationship between capacitance and separation distance and illustrate
the impact of the time constant on charging and discharging characteristics in an
RC circuit.