1.

Q1. Describe briefly how the hierarchal algorithm

works
ANS;= Hierarchical Algorithm:
It breaks down complex problems into smaller, manageable tasks,
organized into levels or layers. In networking, it divides networks into
parts like core, distribu on, and access to improve efficiency.

Q2. What is the main purpose of using router in a

network?
ANS. = Main Purpose of a Router:
A router forwards data between different networks and
determines the best path for data to travel to its des na on.

Q3. Differen ate between:

a. Connec onless and connec on-oriented service
b. Interior and Exterior Rou ng
c. Link state and distance vector rou ng
1.

2. ANS; = a. Connec onless vs. Connec on-Oriented:

o Connec onless: Sends data without establishing a connec on
(e.g., UDP).
o Connec on-Oriented: Establishes a connec on before sending
data and ensures reliable delivery (e.g., TCP).
b. Interior vs. Exterior Rou ng:
o Interior: Rou ng within one network (e.g., OSPF).
o Exterior: Rou ng between different networks (e.g., BGP).
c. Link State vs. Distance Vector Rou ng:
o Link State: Routers share full network maps (e.g., OSPF).
 o Distance: Routers share routes based on distance or hops (e.g.,
RIP).

Q3 Difference rou ng between Vector proac ve and reac ve

3. ANS; protocols.vs. Reac ve Rou ng Protocols:

o Proac ve: Always updates routes (e.g., RIP, OSPF).

o Reac ve: Finds routes only when needed (e.g., AODV, DSR).

Q4 What is the purpose of BGP?

4.
ANS;= BGP is the protocol used to exchange rou ng informa on
between different autonomous systems (ASes) on the Internet. Its main
purpose is to determine the best path for rou ng data across the global
internet, based on policies like AS paths, prefix lengths, and other criteria

Q5 Why OSPF Messages Propagate Faster than RIP

ANS;= OSPF sends updates only when there’s a network change, and it uses
more efficient communica on methods. RIP sends updates regularly, which
makes it slower.

Q6 Explain the IP Protocol. What makes it different from the TCP?

o IP (Internet Protocol): Responsible for delivering data packets from source to
des na on across networks. It does not guarantee delivery, order, or error
checking.
o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable data transmission by
establishing a connec on, checking for errors, and ensuring correct order of
packets.
o Difference: IP handles addressing and rou ng, while TCP ensures reliable
delivery.

Q7. What are IP addresses, and what do they mean? Describe

how an IP address is forma ed.

An IP address is a unique number assigned to a device for iden fica on and communica on over a
network.
 o Format:
 IPv4: Wri en as four numbers (0-255) separated by dots
(e.g., 192.168.1.1).
 IPv6: Uses eight groups of four hexadecimal digits separated
by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334).

Q8. Dis nguish between IPV4 and IPV6 addressing, as well as their
grouping

o IPv4:
 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
 Supports about 4.3 billion addresses.
 Uses dot-decimal nota on.
o IPv6:
 128-bit address (e.g., 2001:db8::1).
 Supports a huge number of addresses.
Uses hexadecimal nota on.
IPv4 Address Classes:
 Class A: 1.0.0.0 – 126.255.255.255 (Large networks)
 Class B: 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255 (Medium networks)
 Class C: 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255 (Small networks)
 Class D: 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255 (Mul cast)
 Class E: 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255 (Reserved for future use)
IPv6 Address Types:
 Unicast: One-to-one communica on (e.g., a unique device)
 Mul cast: One-to-many communica on
 Anycast: One-to-nearest communica on (delivers data to the closest
device with the same address)
 Q9. Explain what subne ng is and how it works.

o Divides a large network into smaller sub-networks (subnets) to improve efficiency

and security.

o It works by borrowing bits from the host por on of an IP address to create more
network segments.

o Helps reduce network conges on and be er manage IP addresses.

Q.10 Difference between ARP and RARP.

o ARP (Address Resolu on Protocol): Converts an IP address to a MAC (physical)
address.

o RARP (Reverse ARP): Converts a MAC address to an IP address.

o Key Difference: ARP finds MAC addresses for communica on, while RARP helps
devices get their IP address when they don’t have one.

Q11 What is the Data Link Protocol?

A data link protocol defines rules for transmi ng data between
devices on the same network. It ensures error-free communica on
and organizes data into frames. Examples include Ethernet, PPP, and
HDLC.
Q12 List three categories of mul ple access protocols
 Random Access (e.g., ALOHA, CSMA/CD) – Devices transmit randomly, and collisions
are handled if they occur.

 Controlled Access (e.g., Token Passing) – Devices take turns sending

data using a control signal (token).
 Channeliza on (e.g., FDMA, TDMA, CDMA) – The channel is divided into
separate por ons for each user.

Q13. How can a collision be avoided in CSMA/CD network?

  Listen before sending (Carrier Sense).
 Stop transmission if a collision is detected.
 Wait for a random me before retransmi ng.

Q14 Compare and contrast CSMA/CD and token passing access

methods
Feature CSMA/CD (Ethernet) Token Passing (Token Ring)

Devices listen and transmit if the A token circulates, and only the device with the
Method
channel is free. token can send data.

Possible if two devices send at the No collisions, as only one device transmits at a
Collisions
same me. me.

Efficiency Less efficient in heavy traffic. More efficient in heavy traffic.

Q15 Is Slo ed ALOHA Always Be er than ALOHA?

 Yes, because it reduces collisions.
 Link Establishment: Devices nego ate se ngs before data transfer.
 Authen ca on: It verifies the sender using PAP or CHAP authen ca on
methods.
 Data Transfer: Data is sent securely a er authen ca on.
 In Slo ed ALOHA, devices send data only in me slots, so fewer collisions
happen.
 In Pure ALOHA, devices send any me, leading to more collisions.
 Slo ed ALOHA has a 37% efficiency, while Pure ALOHA has 18%.

Q16 How Does PPP Transmit Datagrams Over Serial Links?

 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) sends data as packets (frames) over direct

serial connec ons.
 It supports error detec on and can work with different network layer
protocols like IP.

Q17 How Does PPP Establish a Link for Secure File Transfer?
Q18. What are different data link protocols available? Why does
PPP have become popular?
Different Data Link Protocols:
 Ethernet – Used in LANs, fast and reliable.
 HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) – Used in point-to-point connec ons.
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) – Used for dial-up and WAN connec ons.
 Token Ring – Uses token passing for controlled access.

Why is PPP Popular:

 Supports mul ple protocols (IP, IPX, etc.).
 Provides authen ca on (PAP, CHAP).
 Error detec on ensures reliable data transfer.
 Works over serial links and WANs.

Q19. How does the data link layer accomplish the transmission of
data from the source network layer to the des na on network
layer?

 Breaks data into frames.

 Adds addressing and error-checking informa on.
 Sends frames to the des na on device.
 Ensures data is correctly received and processed.

Q20 Compare and contrast a random-access protocol with a

channelizing protocol.
Feature Random Access (CSMA, ALOHA) Channelizing (TDMA, FDMA, CDMA)

Access Devices transmit any me (collision

Channel is divided among users.
Method possible).

More efficient in managing

Efficiency Less efficient in heavy traffic.
bandwidth.
Q21 Do we need a mul ple access protocol when we use the local
loop of the telephone company to access the Internet? Why?

 No, because each user has a dedicated connec on.

 Mul ple access is needed only when many devices share a
communica on channel, like Wi-Fi.

Q22 Define channeliza on and list three protocols in this

category
 Dividing a channel into smaller por ons for mul ple users.
 Three Channeliza on Protocols:
o FDMA (Frequency Division Mul ple Access) – Each user gets a
different frequency.
o TDMA (Time Division Mul ple Access) – Users share a frequency
but transmit at different mes.
o CDMA (Code Division Mul ple Access) – All users share the
frequency, but each has a unique code.

Q23 What is the Data Link Protocol?

A data link protocol defines the rules for transmi ng data between devices in a
network. It organizes data into frames, ensures error-free communica on, and
manages flow control. Examples include Ethernet, PPP, and HDL

Q24 What advantages does the Selec ve Repeat sliding window

protocol offer over Go Back N protocol?
 Selec ve Repeat retransmits only the incorrect/lost frames, while Go-
Back-N resends all frames a er an error.
 More efficient in handling errors, as it reduces unnecessary
retransmissions.
  Be er for long-distance networks where retransmi ng many frames
wastes bandwidth.

Q 25 What is the Purpose of Flow Control:

Flow control ensures that the sender does not send data faster than the receiver can process
it. It prevents data loss and conges on. Common methods include Stop-and-Wait and
Sliding Window.

Q 26 Describe how does finite state machine model carry out

protocol verifica on?
FSM is used to verify protocols by modeling different states and transi ons. It
checks:
 Whether the protocol follows correct steps.
 If it handles errors properly.
 If data transmission follows expected rules

Q27 What are different data link protocols available? Why does
PPP have become popular?
Protocols: Ethernet, HDLC, PPP, Token Ring.
Why is PPP popular?
 Works with mul ple network protocols.
 Supports authen ca on (PAP, CHAP).
 Provides error detec on for reliable data transfer.

Q 28 Explain error detec on techniques

 Parity Check: Adds an extra bit (even or odd parity) to detect errors.
 Checksum: Sums up data bits and sends the result for verifica on.
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): Uses division and remainders to detect
errors.

Q 29 Explain hamming code with an example?

Hamming Code detects and corrects single-bit errors by adding extra parity bits
in specific posi ons.
Example (7-bit Hamming Code for 4-bit Data 1011):
Data bits: _ _ 1 _ 0 1 1 (Parity bits at posi ons 1, 2, and 4)
 Parity bits are calculated using specific bit groups.

 If an error occurs, checking the parity bits helps find and correct the mistake.

Advantage: It corrects single-bit errors without retransmission.

Q30 Difference Between Satellite Communica on and Radio

Broadcast
Feature Satellite Communica on Radio Broadcast

Coverage Global or wide area (depends on satellite) Limited to local/regional area

Two-way communica on (sending & One-way communica on (only

Direc on
receiving) transmi ng)

Medium Uses satellites in space Uses radio towers on Earth

Usage Internet, TV, GPS, phone calls FM/AM radio, TV broadcas ng

Q31. Explain different types of networking devices along with

advantages and disadvantages.
Device Func on Advantages Disadvantages

Causes network
Hub Broadcasts data to all devices Simple & cheap
conges on

Switch Directs data to the correct device Faster, reduces traffic Costlier than a hub

Connects different networks (e.g., LAN Security features, finds

Router Expensive & complex
to the internet) best path

Converts digital to analog signals for

Modem Enables internet access Limited speed
internet

Repeater Boosts weak signals over long distances Extends network range Adds delay
Device Func on Advantages Disadvantages

Q32 What are the different transmission mediums over which

data communica on devices can provide service?

 Wired Mediums:

o Twisted Pair (Phone & Ethernet cables) – Cheap but slow.

o Coaxial Cable (Cable TV, Internet) – Be er shielding & speed.

o Fiber Op c (Fastest, used for high-speed internet) – Expensive but very efficient.

 Wireless Mediums:

o Radio Waves (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) – Good for short-range communica on.

o Microwaves (Satellite, Mobile Communica on) – Covers long distances.

o Infrared (Remote controls, sensors) – Works only in short-range & line-of-sight.

Q33 What are the major limita ons of twisted pair wire?
 Slower Speed compared to fiber op cs.

 Suscep ble to Interference from nearby electrical signals.

 Limited Distance – Signal weakens over long distances.

 Less Secure – Can be tapped easily compared to fiber op cs.

Q34 Describe how satellite communica on is different from

radio broadcast.
 Satellite Communica on: Uses satellites to send and receive signals for global
communica on (TV, GPS, internet).

 Radio Broadcast: Uses radio towers for one-way communica on like FM/AM radio.

 Key Difference: Satellite is two-way & long-distance, while radio is one-way & local.
Q35 Significant Design Considera ons for Computer-to-
Computer Communica on:
 Reliability: Ensuring data reaches the des na on without errors.
 Speed & Efficiency: Fast data transfer with minimal delay.
 Security: Protec on against hacking and unauthorized access.
 Scalability: Ability to connect more devices without performance loss.
 Interoperability: Different devices and networks must work together.

Q 36 In the ISO-OSI paradigm, what are the main roles of the

network layer? What dis nguishes the network layer's packet
delivery role from that of the data link layer
 Network Layer (Layer 3) Role:
o Rou ng: Finds the best path for data.
o Logical Addressing: Uses IP addresses.
o Packet Forwarding: Moves data across networks.
 Difference from Data Link Layer (Layer 2):
o Network Layer: Handles packet delivery across mul ple
networks (end-to-end).
o Data Link Layer: Handles frame delivery within the same network

Q 37 In the OSI reference model, what is the objec ve of layer

isola on?
o

 Each layer works independently, so changes in one layer don’t affect

others.
 Simplifies troubleshoo ng & upgrades without modifying the en re
system.
Q38. Why is the OSI Reference Model so extensively used?
What good did it do to establish itself as a data transmission
standard?

 Standardiza on: Ensures devices from different manufacturers work

together.
 Clear Structure: Makes it easier to develop and troubleshoot networks.
 Layered Approach: Allows technology updates without affec ng the
whole network.

Q39. Compare and contrast the OSI reference model with the
TCP/IP model.
Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Layers 7 layers 4 layers

Developed by ISO DoD (Defense Dept.)

Structure Strictly layered Flexible layering

Usage Conceptual model Prac cal model used on the internet

Protocol Examples Ethernet, IP, TCP, HTTP TCP, IP, UDP

 OSI is a theore cal framework, while TCP/IP is used in real-world networking (e.g., the
Internet).

Q40. Difference Between Bit Rate and Baud Rate

Factor Bit Rate Baud Rate

Number of bits (0s and 1s) transmi ed

Defini on Number of signal changes per second.
per second.

Unit Measured in bps (bits per second). Measured in baud (symbols per second).

Bit Rate = Baud Rate × Number Baud Rate ≤ Bit Rate (if more than
Rela on
of Bits per Symbol one bit per signal change).
Factor Bit Rate Baud Rate

A system transmi ng 2000 bits If each signal change carries 2 bits,

Example per second has a bit rate of 2000 then at 2000 bps, the baud rate is
bps. 1000 baud.

Easy Trick to Remember:

 Bit Rate = Total number of bits sent per second (Speed of data).
 Baud Rate = Number of mes the signal changes per second (Signal
speed).
 If one signal change carries mul ple bits, then Bit Rate > Baud Rate.

Example:
If a modem sends 2400 bits per second and each signal carries 2 bits, the
baud rate is:
Baud Rate = 2400 / 2 = 1200 baud.

Q41 Explain different types of modes of

communica on
1. Simplex: One-way communica on (e.g., TV, Radio).

2. Half-Duplex: Two-way but one at a me (e.g., Walkie-Talkie).

3. Full-Duplex: Two-way communica on at the same me (e.g., Phone Call).

Q42 Explain the difference between full duplex, half duplex

and simplex along with examples.
Mode Data Flow Example

Simplex One-way only Radio, TV

Half-Duplex Two-way, but one at a me Walkie-Talkie

Full-Duplex Two-way, both direc ons at the same me Telephone

Q43 Write down the standards of organiza on.
 ISO (Interna onal Organiza on for Standardiza on) – Defines global standards.
 IEEE (Ins tute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) – Networking standards (e.g.,
Wi-Fi).
 IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) – Internet protocols (e.g., TCP/IP).
 ANSI (American Na onal Standards Ins tute) – U.S. standards.

Q44 What do you understand by signals. Explain types of signals

also.
 Signals carry data over a medium (wired or wireless).
 Types:
o Analog Signal: Con nuous waves (e.g., sound waves, FM radio).
o Digital Signal: Discrete values (0s and 1s) (e.g., computer data).

Q45 There are always three causes of impairment. Explain

them in detail.
1. A enua on: Loss of signal strength over distance.
2. Noise: Unwanted signals interfering with communica on.
3. Distor on: Signal changes due to different transmission speeds.

Q46 between periodic and non-periodic signals.

Signal Type Descrip on Example

Periodic Repeats at regular intervals Sine wave, Clock signals

Non-Periodic Does not repeat regularly Voice conversa on, Data packets

Q47: Write note on

a) Bit rate
b) Baud rate
c) Bit length
d) Bit Interval.
 Bit Rate: Bits transmi ed per second (bps).
 Baud Rate: Signal changes per second.
 Bit Length: Distance a bit occupies on a transmission medium.
 Bit Interval: Time required to send one bit.

Q48 What do you understand by Defacto and DeJure.

 DeFacto Standard: A widely used standard without legal enforcement (e.g., Windows
OS).
 DeJure Standard: A legally approved and officially recognized standard (e.g., TCP/IP,
IEEE standards).

Q49 What do you understand by protocol. Explain protocol

architecture.

 Protocol: A set of rules for communica on between devices.

 Protocol Architecture: Layered structure to manage communica on.
Example:
 TCP/IP Model (4 Layers): Applica on, Transport, Internet, Network
Access.
 OSI Model (7 Layers): Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presenta on, Applica on.

Q50 Explain Five Effec ve Characteris cs of Data

Communica on
1. Accuracy: Data must be delivered without errors.
 2. Timeliness: Data should reach the des na on on me.
3. Ji er: Varia on in data arrival me should be minimal.

4. Delivery: Data must reach the correct device.

5. Security: Data should be protected from unauthorized access.

Q51 Write down applica ons of computer networks.

 Internet & Web Browsing – Accessing websites and online services.
 Communica on – Emails, messaging, video calls.
 File Sharing – Sharing files between devices.
 Cloud Compu ng – Storing and accessing data online.
 E-Commerce – Online shopping and banking.

Q52 How are computer networks classified? Men on some of

the important reasons for the classifica on of computer
networks.

Based on Coverage Area:

1. LAN (Local Area Network) – Small area (e.g., office, school).
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) – Covers a city.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network) – Large area (e.g., the Internet).
Reasons for Classifica on:
 Distance covered.
 Speed and performance.
 Network infrastructure and communica on type.

Q53 Diagramma cally explain bus topology and ring topology

All devices connected to a single central cable (Backbone).
Diagram: BUS TOPOLOGY

Device — Device — Device — Device

✔ Simple & Cheap

Slow & Collisions Occur

Ring Topology:

Devices connected in a closed loop (Ring).

Diagram:

Device --- Device

| |

Device --- Device

✔ No collisions, orderly data transfer

Failure in one device affects the whole network

Q54 Difference Between Star, Bus, and Mesh Topology

Feature Star Bus Mesh

Central hub connects all Single cable connects all Every device connects to every
Structure
devices devices other device

Failure If hub fails, network If cable fails, network

Very reliable (mul ple paths)
Impact stops stops

Cost Moderate Cheap Expensive

Example Office LAN Small networks Military & cri cal networks

Q55 Difference Between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Feature LAN MAN WAN

Full Form Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Network Wide Area Network

Coverage Area Small (Office, School) City-wide Country or Global

Speed High-speed Medium-speed Lower due to long distances

Example Wi-Fi in home Citywide Wi-Fi The Internet

Easy Trick: LAN (Home), MAN (City), WAN (Global).