LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TABLE

1.1 AIRCRAFT RANGE

1.2 PARAMETER
2.1 CRUISE ALTITUDE
2.2 COMPARISON DATA

4.1 FUEL FRACTION

4.2 LIFT/DRAG RATIO

4 .3 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

5.1 ENGINE SELECTION

7.1 DIHEDRAL ANGLE (Г)

8.1 NACA 6 SERIES AIRFOILS

8.2 SELECTED AIRFOIL

9.1 CL MAX DUE TO FLAP

11.1 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL

TAIL CALCULATION

1
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. FIGURE

1.1 PHASE OF DESIGN

1.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONCEPT

1.3 DESIGN CRITERIA

1.4 LIFT & DRAG IN AIRFOIL

3.1 THRUST VS ASPECT RATIO

3.2 THRUST VS CRUISE SPEED

3.3 THRUST VS EMPTY WEIGHT

3.4 THRUST VS GROSS WEIGHT

3.5 THRUST VS HEIGHT

3.6 THRUST VS LENGTH

3.7 THRUST VS MAX. TAKEOFF WEIGHT

3.8 THRUST VS PROPELLER POWER

3.9 THRUST VS RANGE

3.10 THRUST VS RATE OF CLIMB

3.11 THRUST VS SERVICE CEILING

3.12 THRUST VS SPEED

3.13 THRUST VS THRUST LOADING

3.14 THRUST VS USEFUL LOAD

3.15 THRUST VS WING AREA

3.16 THRUST VS WING SPAN

3.17 THRUST VS WING LOADING

4.1 MISSION PROFILE

5.1 ENGINE LAYOUT

2
5.2 CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW

7.1 WING GEOMETRY DESIGN

7.2 WING LAYOUT IN AIRCRAFTS

8.1 AIRFOIL LAYOUT

8.2 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY

8.3 ANGLE OF ATTACK VS LIFT COEFFICIENTFOR NACA 0012

8.4 ANGLE OF ATTACK VS LIFT COEFFICIENT FOR NACA 0015

8.5 PERFORMANCE CURVE FOR CHOSEN AIRCRAFT

9.1 TYPES OF FLAPS

9.2 DOUBLE FLOWER-SLOTTED

10.1 CABIN LAYOUT

10.2 COCKPIT LAYOUT

10.3 HONEYWELL’S AVIONIC SUITE

10.4 COCKPIT INSTRUMENT LAYOUT

10.5 PASSENGER CABIN LAYOUT

11.1 TYPES OF AIRCRAFT TAIL

11.2 STABILITY DUE TO HORIZONTAL TAIL

12.1 C.G INDICATION

12.2 C.G LAYOUT

13.1 MAIN LANDING GEAR ASSEMBLY

13.2 TYPES OF LANDING GEAR

13.3 MAIN LANDING GEAR IN AIRCRAFT

13.4 LANDING GEAR MARKING

13.5 NOSE LANDING GEAR DEPOYED

14.1 GENERATION OF LIFT

3
14.2 AERODYNAMIC FORCES DUE TO LIFT

14.3 PRESSURE VARIATION

14.4 LIFT AT DIFFERENT ANGLES

14.5 LIFT CURVE

15.1 DRAG SEPARATION

15.2 FORM DRAG

15.3 DRAG AT DIFFERENT MACH NUMBERS

15.4 TYPICAL STREAMLINING EFFECT

16.1 TAKEOFF FOR AIRCRAFT

16.2 WEIGHT COMPONENT INDICATION

16.3 THRUST VS CLIMB ANGLE

16.4 GLIDING LAYOUT

17.1 AIRCRAFT FRONT VIEW

17.2 AIRCRAFT TOP VIEW

17.3 AIRCRAFT SIDE VIEW

17.4 SURFACE VIEW OF AIRCRAFT

LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATION

A.R - Aspect Ratio

B - Wing Span (m)

C - Chord of the Airfoil (m)

C root - Chord at Root (m)

C tip - Chord at Tip (m)

Cm - Mean Aerodynamic Chord (m)

CD - Drag Co-efficient

CD o - Zero Lift Drag Co-efficient

Cp - Specific fuel consumption (lbs/hp/hr)

CL - Lift Co-efficient

4
D - Drag (N)

D - Endurance (hr)

E - Oswald efficiency

L - Lift (N)

M - Mach number of aircraft

Mff - Mission fuel fraction

R - Range (km)

Re - Reynolds Number

S - Wing Area (m²)

Sref - Reference surface area

Sa - Approach distance (m)

Sg - Ground roll Distance (m)

T - Thrust (N)

Tcruise - Thrust at cruise (N)

Ttake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)

Vcruise - Velocity at cruise (m/s)

Vstall - Velocity at stall (m/s)

Wcrew - Crew weight (kg)

Wempty - Empty weight of aircraft (kg)

Wfuel - weight of fuel (kg)

Wpayload - payload of aircraft(kg)

W0 - overall weight of the aircraft(kg)

W/S - wing loading(Kg/m2)

M - Dynamic vi

5
 Introduction
Design of an airplane:
Airplane design is both an art and a science. It’s the intellectual engineering process of
creating on paper (or on a computer screen) a flying machine to meet certain specifications
and requirements established by potential users (or as perceived by the manufacturer) and
pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology.

The design process is indeed an intellectual activity that is rather specified one that is
tempered by good intuition developed via by attention paid to successful airplane designs that
have been used in the past, and by (generally proprietary) design procedure and databases
(hand books etc…) that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.
Phases of airplane design:
The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are carried out in
sequence. They are
Conceptual design
Preliminary design
Detailed design

6
 1. Selection of Aircraft and Its Parameter

Aim To select an aircraft from Jane’s All the Worlds Aircraft book of given type and to
select the parameters of the selected aircraft.

Theory The design of an aircraft draws on a number of basic areas of aerospace engineering.
These include aerodynamics, propulsion, light-weight structures, and control.

Figure1.1.Basic area of aircraft.

Each of these areas involves parameters that govern the size, shape, weight, and performance
of an aircraft. There are many performance aspects that can be specified by the mission
requirements. These include, • The aircraft purpose or mission profile; • The type(s) and
amount of payload; • The cruise and maximum speeds; • The normal cruise altitude; The
range or radius with normal payload; • The endurance; the purchase cost; and • The take-off
distance at the maximum weight;

1.1. Purpose and scope of airplane desgin

The process of design of the device or a vehicle in general involves the use of knowledge in
device field to arrive at a produce that will satisfy requirements regarding functional aspects,
operational safety and cost. The design of an airplane, which is being dealt in this course,
involves synthesizing knowledge in areas like aerodynamics, structures, propulsion, systems
and manufacturing techniques. The aim is to arrive at the configuration of an airplane, which
will satisfy aforesaid requirements. • Obtaining the specification of the airplane, selecting the
type and determining

• The geometric parameters

7
• Selection of the power plant

• Structural design and working out details of construction

• Fabrication of prototype

• Determination of airplane performance, stability, and structural intergrit

1.2. Classification of airplane

There are two types of airplanes

• Civil and Military

1.2.1. Civil

The civil airplanes are categorized as passenger, cargo, agricultural, sports & ambulance.

1.2.2. Military

The military airplanes are categorized as fighter, bomber, interceptor, reconnaissance, and
airplanes for logistic support like troop-carriers and rescue airplane. The military aircraft are
often designed to cater to more the one role.

For example: fighter, bomber or interceptor-fighter.

1.3. Classifications of airplane based on wing configuration

Early airplane had two or more airplanes had two wings braced with wires. Presently only
single wing is used. These airplanes are called monoplane. When the wing is supported by
struts the airplane is called semi-cantilever monoplane. Depending on the location of the
wing on the fuselage, the airplane is called high wing, mid wing and low wing configuration.
Further, if the wing has no sweep the configuration is called straight wing monoplane. The
swept wing and delta wing configuration.

8
Figure 1.2.Classification of wings

9
 Figure 1.3.Flight control surfaces
1.4. Aircraft Purpose
The starting point for the design of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. It is
generally categories into
• Combat aircraft,
• Passenger or
• Cargo transports, and
• General aviation aircraft.

These may also be further refined into subcategories based on particular design objectives
such as range (short or long), take-off or landing distances, maximum speed, etc. The process
of categorizing is useful in identifying any existing aircraft that might be used in making
comparisons to a proposed design.

Payload

The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s mission.
Standard payloads are passengers, cargo, or ordnance. The first 2 are considered as
nonexpendable payload because they are expected to be transported for the complete duration
of the flight plan.

Cruise maximum speed

The mission of an aircraft usually dictates its speed range. Propeller-driven aircraft are
usually designed to cruise at speed between 150 to 300 knots. Jet powered aircraft have
higher cruise speeds that are normally specified in terms of Mach number. The typical Mach
number for business and commercial jet aircraft is from 0.8 to 0.85.

Normal cruise altitude

10
The cruise altitude is generally dictated by the cruise speed, propulsion system, and cabin
pressurization. An aircraft with an unpressurized cabin would cruise no higher than 10000
feet. With propeller-driven aircraft, turbo-charged piston engines can maintain a constant
horsepower up to an altitude of approximately 20000 feet. Higher altitudes are possible with
turboprop aircraft, such as the Piper Cheyenne, which have a maximum ceiling from 35000 to
41000.

The decrease in air density with altitude lowers the drag, so that for these aircraft the cruise
range increase with altitude.

Range

The range is the furthest distance the aircraft can fly without refueling. In a flight plan range
refers to the distance traveled during the cruise phase.

The choice of the range is one of the most important decision because it has a large effect on
the aircraft take-off weight.

Table 1.1.Aircraft range

Endurance
Endurance is the amount of time an aircraft can fly without refueling. With a reconnaissance
is one of the main design drivers.

11
1.5. Parameters
Parameters
Max Mach 0.8-0.85
Cruise Alt 41000 ft
Range 1800Nm
Endurance 9.56 hrs
Table 1.2.Parameter

Result
Thus a “11 SEATED BUSINESS JET” aircraft is selected from Jane’s All the Worlds
Aircraft book and the parameters related to the given aircraft is selected.

12
 2. COMPARITIVE STUDY
Aim
To make a comparative study of Aircrafts having the specification and functional similarities
for their purpose of operation.
Introduction
For choosing an aircraft for our particular usage, we should be aware of the basic qualities of
the aircraft. We should compare the existing aircrafts for getting our desired one. First upon
we should be analyses the basic requirements of the aircraft, like type of aircraft (passenger,
fighter, bomber, cargo flight, etc.) then we should go for the cruise speed & cruise altitude.
Then the other requirements like payload, range, endurance, take off-landing distance etc.
Then we should search for the existing flights having any of the same qualities and compare
two or three flights having the required qualities.

After finding the existing flight then go for comparing the parameters whatever they have and
our required one. Then calculate the dimensions of the flight whatever we have desired and
chose the weight, thrust and other factors required for our desired one.

2.1. Basic parameters

2.1.1. Cruise mach no: It is the cruise speed at which the aircraft should fly. Generally the
speed of the aircraft is mentioned in the Mach no. It is the ratio of the speed of object with the
local speed of sound.

2.1.2. Weight: Weight of the Aircraft is affected by so many things. They are the Empty
structural weight, Fuel weight, Payload etc. Each aircraft have its own capacity that can carry
the weight at maximum efficiently at the desired altitude.

2.1.3. Cruise altitude: When height increases the specific fuel consumption of the aircraft
decreases, so the fuel can be reserved in the aircraft, while the aircraft is designed to working
at a particular altitude from the standard sea level. So the international atmospheric
parameters will vary with change in altitude.

13
 Table 2.1.Cruise altitude
2.1.4. Range: It is the maximum distance that can be achieved by the aircraft. In this the
transport and passenger aircraft mentioned the range and the fighter, bomber and other type
of military aircrafts are mentioned as operating radius. In this the range is depend upon the
type of aircraft.

14
 2.2 Comparison
Specification A/c-1 A/c-2 A/c-3 A/c-4 A/c-5 A/c-6 A/c-7 A/c-8 A/c-9 A/c-10
Geometrical
Length (m) 29.5 29.5 30.3 30.3 29.4 29.39 33.88 23.38 24.46 30.40
Height (m) 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 8.18 7.87 8.2 7.83 7.94 7.82
Aspect ratio 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 7.68 7.7 8.63 9.71 9.77 7.7
Wing Span 28.7 28.7 28.7 28.7 28.48 28.50 31.7 26.21 26.29 30.35
(m)
Wing area 94.8 94.8 94.8 94.8 105.6 105.63 116.5 70.7 70.7 119.62
(m2)
Total 13 16 13 17 16 18 18 16 16 18
Seating
Capacity
Crew 2+2 2+2 2+2 2+2 2+2 2+2 4 3 3 4
Wing Configuration
Type of Swept Swept Swept Swept Swept Swept Swept Swept Swept Swept
wing backward backward backward backward backward backward backward backward backward backward
Specification of Weight
Empty 23,070 Kg 23,070 Kg 23,691 Kg 23,691 Kg 20,956 Kg 21,909 Kg 27,987 Kg 16,601 Kg 16,375 Kg 24,000 Kg
weight
Fuel Weight 17,804 Kg 17,804 Kg 20,434 Kg 20,434 Kg 18,700 Kg 18,733 Kg 23,362 Kg 14,488 Kg 15,380 Kg 20,000 Kg
Takeoff 41,957 Kg 41,957 Kg 45,132 Kg 45,132 Kg 41,050 Kg 41,277 Kg 52,096 Kg 31,751 Kg 33,113 Kg 45,200 Kg
Weight

Max.speed 934(Km/hr) 940(Km/hr) 934(Km/hr) 940(Km/hr) 934(Km/hr 930(Km/h 955(Km/h 956(Km/h 956(Km/hr 983(Km/hr)
) r) r) r) )
Mach.no 0.89 0.90 0.89 0.90 0.88 0.88 0.925 0.9 0.9 0.925
Range 9360 Km 10,556 Km 11,112 Km 12,223 Km 12,000 Km 12,500 14,260 11,019 11,945 Km 13,000 Km
Km Km Km
Service 41000ft 41000ft 41000ft 41000ft 51000ft 51000ft 5100ft 51000ft 51000ft 51000ft
ceilling

15
Take off 1689 m 1674 m 1974 m 1942 m 1900 m 1801 m 1768 m 1740 m 1829 m 1786 m
Run
Engine Configuration
Engine Type Turbo Fan Turbo Fan Turbo Fan Turbo Fan Turbo Fan Turbo Fan Turbo Fan Turbo Fan Turbo Fan Turbo Fan
No. of 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 2
Engine

Table 2.2 Comparison data

16
Result
Thus a comparative study of 11 seated Business Jet aircraft is done.

17
 3. COMPARITIVE STUDY AND MEAN DATA SHEET
Aim
To make a comparative study of Aircrafts having the specification and derivating mean data
sheet or design data sheet.
3.1. Graphical or Approximation method

In this method the approximate values of the design parameters were determined using
graphical plot

Plot Graphs with literature review comparison data sheet Insert the graph with Cruising
Speed (Km/hr) at X axis in all the graphs

Graph 2.1 Cruising speed Vs length

Graph 2.2 Cruising speed Vs Height

Graph 2.3 Cruising speed Vs Wing Span

Graph 2.4 Cruising speed Vs Aspect ratio

Graph 2.5 Cruising speed Vs Wing Area

Graph 2.6 Cruising speed Vs take off run

Graph 2.7 Cruising speed Vs Service Ceiling

Graph 2.8 Cruising speed Vs Range

Graph 2.9 Cruising speed Vs Maximum Speed

Graph 2.10 Cruising speed Vs Maximum takeoff Weight

Graph 2.11 Cruising speed Vs Rate of Climb

Graph 2.12 Cruising speed Vs Empty weight

Graph 2.13 Cruising speed Vs W/S

Graph 2.14 Cruising speed Vs Fuel weight

18
 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS

CRUISING SPEED Vs LENGTH

CRUISING SPEED Vs HEIGHT

19
CRUISING SPEED Vs WING SPAN

CRUISING SPEED Vs ASPECT RATIO

20
CRUISING SPEED Vs WING AREA

CRUISING SPEED Vs TAKEOFF RUN

21
CRUISING SPEED Vs SERVICE CEILLING

CRUISING SPEED Vs RANGE

22
CRUISING SPEED Vs MAXIMUM SPEED

CRUISING SPEED Vs MAXIMUM TAKEOFF WEIGHT

23
CRUISING SPEED Vs RATE OF CLIMB

CRUISING SPEED Vs EMPTY WEIGHT

24
CRUISING SPEED Vs W/S

CRUISING SPEED Vs FUEL WEIGHT

25
3.2 Design Parameter or Mean Data sheet
Specification Mean Data Values
Geometrical Data
Length (m) 29.45
Height (m) 7.87
Aspect ratio 8.7
Wing Span (m) 28.5
Wing area (m2) 105.6
Total Seating Capacity 15
Crew 4
Wing Configuration
Type of wing Swept Backward
Specification of Weight
Empty weight 22490 Kg
Fuel Weight 18700 Kg
Takeoff Weight 41500 Kg
Performance Data
Max.speed 950 Km /hr,(514 knots)
Mach.no 0.84
Range 12000 Km
Endurance
Service ceilling 41,000ft
Take off Run 1790 m
Engine Configuration
Engine Type 2
No. of Engine Turbo Fan

3.2 Table Design Parameter or Mean Data sheet

Result
Thus a comparative study of “11 SEATED BUSINESS JET”aircraft is done and Mean data
sheets were prepared.

26
 4. WEIGHT ESTIMATION OF THE AIRCRAFT
Aim
To estimate the weight of the 11 seated Business jet during its important phases like takeoff,
cruise, climb, loiter, landing.

4.1 Theory

“Design takeoff gross weight” is the total weight of the aircraft as it begins the mission for which
it was designed. This is not necessarily the same as the “maximum takeoff weight.” Many
military aircraft can be overloaded beyond design weight but will suffer a reduced
maneuverability. Unless specifically mentioned, takeoff gross weight.

The first step in the design of a new aircraft is to obtain an estimation of weight of the aircraft
during its important phases. This estimation is one of the most crucial, since it is used in many
other parts of the design.

The total take-off weight is divided into fuel weight, payload weight, and empty or structure
weight

WTO = W fuel + W payload + W empty

The payload is further divided into nonexpendable and expandable type. The nonexpendable
payload remains unchanged throughout the flight plan. Expendable payload is dropped
somewhere in the flight plan. The total payload weight is, therefore,

Wpayload = Wexpendable + Wnonexpendable

Long range aircraft devote a greater percentage of their take-off to the weight of fuel. The fuel
weight is based on the flight plan. It considers the fuel used in all of the flight phases.
For any flight, the fuel used is determined and represented as the ratio of the fuel weight leaving
(final) to the entering (initial) that phase.

Fuel Weight Fraction = (Wf/Wi) fuel.

Hence,
W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wempty [4.1]
In Eq. (4.1), Wfuel is the weight of the full fuel load at the beginning of the flight.

27
In Eq. (4.1), W0 is the important quantity for which we want a first estimate;
W0 is the desired result from graph.
To help make this estimate, Eq. (4.1) can be rearranged as follows. If we denote Wfuel by Wf and
Wempty by We (for notational simplicity), Eq. (4.1) can be written as
W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wf + We [4.2]
W0=Wcrew+Wpayload+ W0+ W0 [4.3]
Solving Eq. (4.3) for W0, we have

W0 = {(����� +��������)/ [1−( ����� /�0 )–( ������ /�0 )]} [4.4]

Where, ��/ �0 - Fuel weight fraction & ��/ �0 - Empty weight fraction
4.2 ESTIMATION OF We /W0:
In the plot of We /W0 vs. W0 for the aircrafts shown in the comparative data sheet the values of
We /W0 tend to cluster around a horizontal line at We /W0
Plot graph between We /W0 Vs W0

Graph 4.1 We /W0 Vs W0

The value of We /W0 = 0.524

4.3 Estimation of Wf / W0:

The amount of fuel to carry out the mission depends critically on the efficiency of the propulsion
device, the engine specific fuel consumption. It also depends on L/D ratio. The fuel weight ratio

28
Wf = W0-W5
Wf / W0 = 1- (�5/�0)
��/�0 can be obtained from the product of mission segment weight at the end of the segment
divided by the weight at the beginning of segment.

From Mission Profile of an Aircraft the fuel fraction for an entire mission is
�5/�0 = �1/�0 x �2/ �1 x �3/ �2 x �4 /�3 x �5 /�4 [4.5]

Figure 4.1 Normal mission profiles for passenger aircraft

4.3. 1 Suggested Fuel Fractions for Several Mission Phases
Airplane Type Take Off Climb Descent Landing
Business Jet 0.995 0.980 0.990 0.992
Transport 0.970 0.985 1.000 0.995
Military Trainers 0.990 0.980 0.990 0.995
Supersonic Cruise 0.995 0.92 – 0.87 0.985 0.992

Table 4.1 Mission fuel fraction

From Table 4.1, we get the following values:
For takeoff, segment 0-1 historical data’s shows that,
�1/�0 = 0.995
For climb, segment 1-2 historical data shows that,
�2/�1 = 0.980

29
 For loiter, segment 3-4 ignoring the fuel consumption during descent we assume,
�4/�3 = 0.990
For landing, segment 4-5 based on historical data we assume that,
�5 /�4 = 0.992
4.3.2 To calculate unknown value, W3/W2
The Brequet’s range equation is used to calculate the value of W3/W2 . As we all know that
maximum range is covered during cruise we considering this equation,

R = (�∞/��)*(�/�)*ln(�2/�3) [4.6]

�∞ is Cruising Speed from design data sheet

�� is Specific fuel consumption from suggested table data

�/� from suggested table data
R is Range from design data sheet
4.3.3 Suggested / Initial Estimates of Lift/Drag Ratio (L/D)
Aircrafts Cruise Loiter
Homebuilt & single-engine 8 – 10 10-12
Business jets 10-12 12-14
Regional turboprops 11-13 14-16
Transport jets 13-15 14-18
Military trainers 8-10 10-14
Fighters 4-7 6-9
Military patrol, bombers &Transports 13-15 14-18
Supersonic cruise 4-6 7-9
Table 4.2 L/D Ratio for different Aircraft
From the Table 4.2, L/D values of similar type of aircrafts we come to know that the
approximate the value of L/D for our aircraft to be 15. So, �/� = 12. 4.3.4 Suggested / Initial
Estimates Specific Fuel Consumption
Aircrafts Cruise Loiter
Business jets & Transport jets 0.5-0.9 0.4-0.6
Military trainers 0.5-1.0 0.4-0.6
Fighters 0.6 - 1.4 0.6-0.8
Military patrol, bombers &Transports 0.5-0.9 0.4-0.6
Supersonic cruise 0.7-1.5 0.6-0.8
Table 4.3 Specific fuel consumption for different Aircraft
From Table 4.3, we found the values of cj as (0.5)

30
 Parameter Values for Design
�∞ 950
�� 0.5
�/� 12
R 12000 Km
Table 4.4 Parameters for calculations
So now substituting these values in the Brequet’s range equation,

R = �∞ /��* � /�* ln �2/�3

�2/�3 = 1.648
�3/ �2 = 0.606
Now using all the fuel fractions, sub in equation 4.5
�5/�0 = �1/�0 x �2/ �1 x �3/ �2 x �4 /�3 x �5 /�4
�5/�0 =0.5803
Wf = W0-W5
Wf / W0 = 1- (�5/�0)
If at end of the flight, the fuel tanks are not completely empty, making six percent of allowance
for reserve and trapped fuel,
Wf / W0 = 1.06 x {1- (�5/�0)}
Wf / W0 = 0.44
4.4 Estimation of Wcrew & Wpayload
Corning suggests the average passenger weight of 100kg with baggage per passenger. For our
aircraft, there are 11 passengers, two stewards and two pilots, 15 people in total. Let us assume
the average weight per person is 80.
Hence, since the 2 crew is the pilots and stewards, we assume
Wcrew = 4×100= 400 kg
The payload is the 15 passenger, plus the baggage for all 15 people. The type of short business
trip for which this aircraft will most likely be used would require less baggage than a longer,
intercontinental trip.
Thus, including the pilot’s baggage, we have
Wpayload = 15*100 = 1500 Kg
4.5 Estimation of W0

31
Return to Eq. (4.4) for the design takeoff gross weight W0. We have obtained a value for We/W0
through graph 4.1. We have also obtained a value for Wf/W0 in section 4.3. The values for the
crew and payload weights were obtained in section 4.4.
All we need to obtain W0 from Eq. (4.4)

W0 = {(����� +��������)/ [1−( ����� /�0 )–( ������ /�0 )]} [4.4]
W0 = 42851.03 kN
This is only the first estimation
Now by doing iterations, we can get a fairly accurate value of the Maximum Take Off Weight
(W0).
4.6 ITERATION PROCESS (W0)
For the iteration process, we use the given formula,

We /�0 = 1.02 × �0 −0.06 [4.7]

Iteration 1
We from graph value (ie)., We /�0 = 0.524 and Sub W0 =42857.14kg ,find We
We = 23,048.56 Sub We in 4.7 and W0 = 42857.14kg in [4.7]

23,048.56 /W0 = 1.02 ×42857.14 −0.06

W0 = 42851.4Kg
Iteration 2
We from graph value (ie)., We /�0 = graph value and Sub W0 =42857.14 kg find We
We = 23,048.56 Sub We in 4.7 and W0 =42851.4kg (value from previous iteration ) in [4.7]

23,048.56/W0 = 1.02 × 42857.14−0.06

W0 =42851.05 Kg
Iteration 3
We from graph value (ie)., We /�0 = graph value and Sub W0 =42857.14 kg find We
We = 23,048.56 Sub We in 4.7 and W0 =42857.14kg (value from previous iteration ) in [4.7]

23,048.56/W0 = 1.02 × 42857.05 −0.06

W0 =42857.04 Kg
Iteration 4

32
We from graph value (ie)., We /�0 = graph value and Sub W0 =42857.04 kg find We
We = 23,048.56 Sub We in 4.7 and W0 =42857.04kg (value from previous iteration ) in [4.7]

23,048.56/W0 = 1.02 × 42857.04 −0.06

Wo = 42853.7 Kg
Iteration 5
We from graph value (ie)., We /�0 = graph value and Sub W0 =42857.04 kg find We
We = 23,048.56 Sub We in 4.7 and W0 =42853.7kg (value from previous iteration ) in [4.7]

23,048.56/W0 = 1.02 × 42853.7 −0.06

W0 =42851.03 Kg
Iteration 6
We from graph value (ie)., We /�0 = graph value and Sub W0 =42857.04 kg find We
We = 23,048.56 Sub We in 4.7 and W0 =42851.03kg (value from previous iteration ) in [4.7]

23,048.56/W0 = 1.02 × 42851.03 −0.06

W0 =42851.03 Kg
Iteration 7
We from graph value (ie)., We /�0 = graph value and Sub W0 =42857.04 kg find We
We = 23,048.56 Sub We in 4.7 and W0 =42851.03kg (value from previous iteration ) in [4.7]

23,048.56/W0 = 1.02 × 42851.03 −0.06

W0 =42851.03 Kg
After doing seven iterations, we can see that the value of We Wo starts to converge on 0.524 So
we can take the value W0 = 42851.03 as the final estimate of the W
Max Take Off Weight (W0) =42851.03 kg.
4.7 Estimation of Weight of the fuel
From section 4.3 We know that,
�� /�0 =0.442
So, substituting the value of W0 from section 4.6, we get the first estimation value of Wf ,
�� = 0.442 x �0

33
Wf = 0.442 × 42851.03 = 18940.155 Kg
Weight of the Fuel (Wf)= 18940.155 Kg

Result
Thus a weight estimation of 11 seated Business jet is done and the total weight at take off is
(42851.03Kg) & Fuel weight is ( 18940.155 Kg)

34
 5. POWER PLANT SELECTION
Aim
To choose appropriate power plant for “11 seated Business jet” Aircraft.

5.1 Theory

From the first weight estimate, we can have rough idea of the weight of the power plant that is to
be used.

The total weight of the power plant is found to be 0.25×W○.

The literature survey indicated a thrust to weight ratio of 0.25 was appropriate.

The choice of engine is a turbofan for the following reasons such as:

1) High operating fuel economy

2) Efficiency for high payloads

3) Short take-off roll due to increased thrust at low speeds

Most of the aircraft in the business category were found to have 2 engines & hence the
preference is towards having twin engines

Max. take off weight ,W0 = 42851.03kg (from expt 04)

=42851.03×9.81
=420.368 KN
Wpowerplant =0.25×W0
=0.25× 420.368 (KN to N)
=105.092 KN
Engines can be used in a combination of 2×52.546 KN
Total Number of Engines selected for the purpose is 2
A choice of engines from different manufacturers is always the preferred commercial position
for the airframe manufacturer. This ensures that the engine price and availability is more
competitive. It also provides the potential airline customer with more bargaining power when
selecting the aircraft/engine

35
purchase.
There are several available engines that would suit our requirement. All of them are
currently used on civil aircraft operations therefore considerable experience is available.
The engines below are typical options
TABLE: 5.1 Comparisons of Engines
Sl.no Name of the Engine Type Thrust
1 General electric CF 34 - 8C Turbofan 65 KN
2 Pearl 10x Turbofan 54 KN
3 Rolls Royce BR 725 Turbofan 60KN
4 Rolls Royce BR 710 Turbofan 57KN
5 PW800 Turbofan 47KN

5.2 REQUIRED ENGINE

Calculated thrust and weight of the engine are satisfied with the therefore chosen this engine.
Description of : GENERAL ELECTRIC CF 34-8C
The General Electric CF34 is a civilian high-bypass turbofan developed by GE Aviation from
its TF34 military engine. The CF34 is used on a number of business and regional jets, including
the Bombardier CRJ series, the Embraer E-Jets, and Comac ARJ21.[2][3] In 2012, there were
5,600 engines in service.
Design and development.
The original engine contained a single stage fan driven by a 4-stage low pressure (LP) turbine,
supercharging a 14-stage HP compressor driven by a 2-stage high pressure (HP) turbine, with an
annular combustor. Later higher thrust versions of the CF34 feature an advanced technology core,
with only 10 HP compressor stages. Latest variants, the -10A and -10E, were derived from
the CFM56 engine family,[citation needed] and have a radically different HP spool, containing a 9-
stage compressor driven by a single stage turbine. The LP spool has 3 core booster stages behind
the fan. Static thrust is 82 KiloNewtons (18,500 lbf) for the -10E variant.
On wing times can reach 14,000 hours, an overhaul costs over $1.5 million and a set
of LLPs $2.1 million for a 25,000 cycle life.[4] In 1995, GE invested $200 million to develop the
-8C derivative for the CRJ700.

36
 Figure 5.1 Image of Selected Engine
The above engine is a high by pass ratio, two-spool axial flow turbofan
engine. The mean design features include
A single stage fan
A 14-stage axial flow compressor with inlet guide vanes and five variable
geometry stator stages
A 2-stage high pressure turbine to drive the compressor
A 3-stage low pressure turbine to drive the fan.
Dual redundant ,full Authority Digital Electronic Controls
Accessory gearbox
5.3 ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
⮚ Length :320cm
⮚ Diameter :130cm
⮚ Weight :1090-1110 kg
COMPONENTS
⮚ Compressor : 10 HP
⮚ Turbine : 2HP,4LP
PERFORMANCE
⮚ Thrust : 61.3-64.5KN
⮚ Inlet mass flow : 70-90Kg/sec
⮚ Turbine inlet temperature : 1500-16000c
⮚ Thrust to weight ratio : 5.7-6.1
⮚ Exhaust nozzle area :1.2-1.4m2
⮚ Fan bypass : 5:1 kg/min

37
⮚ Rotor speeds :7400rpm - 17820rpm
⮚ Fuel inlet pressure :2068.5Kpa-2758kpa
⮚ Bypass ratio : 5:1
⮚ Pressure ratio :14:1

Result:
Based on calculations and literatures for “11 seated Business jet” the power plant name
is General electric CF 34 - 8C is choosen.

38
 6. FUEL WEIGHT VALIDATION
Aim
To validate the fuel weight that is obtained from previous experiment.

6.1 Theory

The choice of a suitable engine, having been made, it is now possible to estimate the amount of
fuel required for a flight at the given cruising speed for the given range
Wfuel = (Number of engine x Thrust at altitude x Range x SFC x1.2)/Cruise Velocity
*1.2 is for reserved fuel
Number of Engine : (2)
Range : (1800)
SFC: (0.5)

Cruise velocity : 263.88 (m/s)

Thrust at altitude is calculated using the relation:
Tσ =T0×σ1.2
σ =ρalt / ρo
Altitude = 12615.38 m = 41000 ft (From Cruise altitude data from mean data)
ρalt - Density at cruise altitude
ρo Density at sea level (1.225)
Tσ =T0×σ1.2
Thrust at altitude, Tσ =2312914.9
Wfuel = (Number of engine x Thrust at altitude x Range x SFC x1.2)/Cruise Velocity
Wfuel= 18932.36

Result:
The fuel weight of designed aircraft is 18932.36Kg

39
 7. WING DESIGN
Aim
To obtain wing design for “ 11 Seated Business jet Aircraft”.

7.1 Theory

After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component of the aircraft to
be designed is the wing. The wing may be considered as the most important component of an
aircraft, since a fixed-wing aircraft is not able to fly without it. Since the wing geometry and its
features are influencing all other aircraft components, we begin the detail design process by wing
design. The primary function of the wing is to generate sufficient lift force or simply lift (L).
However, the wing has two other productions, namely drag force or drag (D) and nose-
down pitching moment (M). While a wing designer is looking to maximize the lift, the other two
(drag and pitching moment) must be minimized. The wing must produce sufficient lift while
generate minimum drag, and minimum pitching moment. These design goals must be
collectively satisfied throughout all flight operations and missions.
7.2 WING GEOMETRY DESIGN

Fig 7.1 Wing geometry design

The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely the Wing loading (W/S),
Sweep back angle at quarter chord (Λqc).
The Take-off Weight that was estimated in the previous analysis is used to find the
Aspect Ratio (b2/S),
The value of S also enables us to calculate the Taper ratio (λ)

40
From Raymer book we choose our, Taper Ratio (λ) = 0.6
The root chord is given by,
Root Chord (Cr) = 2S/[b(1+ λ)]
The tip chord is given by
Tip chord (Ct)= λ × Croot
Mean Aerodynamic Chord,
Mean chord= 2/3 x Croot x {(1+ λ+2 λ)/(1+ λ)}
Where,
S = Reference wing area
C = Chord
b = Wing span
λ = Taper ratio
A= Aspect ratio = b2/S
Sweep back angle (Λ) can be obtained approximately using a taper ratio (λ) of 0.6
7.2.1. WING AREA:
Wing Planform area (S) = Weight /Wing loading
W/S = (42851.03/3980.76)
Wing Planform area = 105.6
7.2.2. WING SPAN:
Aspect ratio = (from the graph)
Aspect ratio = b2/S
Span (b) = (Wing planform area × Aspect ratio)0.5
= (8.78*105.6)0.5
=30.31 m
7.3 WING CHORD DESIGN
7.3.1. ROOT CHORD, Cr
The root chord is given by,
Root chord (Cr) =2S/[b(1+ λ)]
=4.35
7.3.2. TIP CHORD, Ct
Tip chord (Ct) = λ× Croot
= 2.61
DETERMINATION OF THE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD

Mean chord= 2/3 x Croot x {(1+ λ+2 λ)/(1+ λ)}

=5.075

41
 7.3.3. Distance of the Mean Chord from the Aircraft Centre line
= {b(1+2 λ)}/{6(1+ λ)
=6.94
7.3.4. SWEEP ANGLE ( Ʌ):
Sweep back angle at Leading edge
Ʌ= tan-1{(Cr-Ct)/b}
=3.2509 (degrees)
7.3.5 DIHEDRAL/ANDIHEDRAL ANGLE ( Γ )
No Aircraft Type Wing Position Dihedral/Anhedral
(deg)
1 Bombardier global 5000 Swept back Low wing Dihedral(1.7)
2 Bombardier global 5500 Swept back Low wing Dihedral(1.7)
3 Bombardier global 6000 Swept back Low wing Dihedral(1.7)
4 Gulf stream V Swept back Low wing Dihedral(1.7)
5 Dassault falcon 7X Swept back Low wing Dihedral(1.7)
From the above table the Dihederal angle of different11 seated transport aircraft are range
between 2-50.we take our design consideration
7.3.6 Location of Wing
There are three basic vertical locations of the wing relative to the fuselage:
1. High wing
2. Mid wing
3. Low wing
High wing:
1. Low-slung fuselage – ease to place the fuselage lower to the ground.
2. More stable in lateral and rolling motion.
3. It is a distinct advantage for transport plane since it simplifies the loading and unloading
processes.
Mid wing:
1. Least interference drag.
2. Gives best stability with little dihedral.
Low wing:
1. Landing gear can easily be retracted into the wing box.
2. Added fillet will avoid undesirable aerodynamic interference.
In light of all the above considerations, we choose a low-wing configuration mainly due to
structural and Landing gear considerations.

42
Result:
Thus the Wing configuration for the selected aircraft is obtained

43
 8. AIRFOIL SELECTION
Aim
To select Airfoil for “11 Seated Business jet Aircraft”.

8.1 Theory

The airfoil is the main aspect and is the heart of the airplane. The airfoils affects the cruise speed
landing distance and take off, stall speed and handling qualities and aerodynamic efficiency
during the all phases of flight
Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions, design/selection,
families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio, lift
curve slope, characteristic curves.
8.2 AIRFOIL DESIGN

Fig 8.1 Airfoil design

The following are the airfoil geometry and definition:
Chord line: It is the straight line connecting leading edge (LE) and trailing edge(TE).
Chord (c): It is the length of chord line.
Thickness (t): measured perpendicular to chord line as a % of it (subsonic typically 12%)
Camber (d): It is the curvature of section, perpendicular distance of section midpoints from chord
line as a % of it (sub sonically typically 3%).
Angle of attack (α): It is the angular difference between chord line and airflow direction.
The following are airfoil categories:
Early it was based on trial & error.

44
NACA 4 digit is introduced during 1930’s.
NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards for increased CL max.
NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of laminar flow.
Modern it is mainly based upon need for improved aerodynamic characteristics at speeds just
below speed of sound.
NACA 4 Digit
1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).
2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from leading edge(LE)).
3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).
NACA 5 Digit
1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient 2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber
(as % of chord from LE).
4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).
NACA 6 Digit
1st digit: identifies series type.
2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from leading edge(LE)).
3rd digit: indicates acceptable range of CL above/below design value for satisfactory low drag
performance (as tenths of CL).
4th digit (x0.1): design CL.
5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)
The airfoil that is to be used is now selected. As indicated earlier during the calculation of the lift
coefficient value, it becomes necessary to use high speed airfoils,i.e., the 6x series, which have
been designed to suit high subsonic cruise Mach numbers.
8.3 ESTIMATION OF THE CRITICAL PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS
We now move to pivot point 3, namely, an estimation of critical performance (CL) max, L/D,
W/S, and T/W. These parameters are directed by the requirements; that is, they will be
determined by such aspects as maximum speed, range, and ceiling, rate of climb, stalling speed,
landing gear, and takeoff distance.

45
Maximum Lift Coefficient
This is the stage in the design process where we make an initial choice for the airfoil shape for
the wing. Historically, general aviation airplanes have employed the NACA four digit, and 6-
series airfoil sections-the laminar-flow series.
L=W=0.5×ρ×V 2stall×S×CL cruise [8.1]
VStall = 0.25 × Vcruise [8.2]
VStall = 0.25× 263.88
VStall =65.97m/s [8.3]

CL cruise = 0.426[8.4]
t/c CALCULATION:

Taking # = 1.05 - 0.25 CL cruise=0.80

Where,
M = Drag Divergence Cruise Mach Number = 0.84; Δ = Sweep Back Angle = 3.25° at Quarter
Chord; CL cruise = 0.426
Substituting the values in the above equation, we get,
t/c= 0.015
NACA SERIES AIRFOIL HAVING t/c RATIO AS 0.12
Sl.no Airfoil Name t/c ratio
1 NACA 0012 0.12
2 NACA 0404 0.04
3 NACA 0012 0.12
4 NACA 0015 0.15
5 NACA 2415 0.15
From the above list of airfoils, the one chosen is the 65(1)-412 airfoil which has the suitable lift
coefficient for the current design.In order to obtain better span-wise distribution of lift and to
have better stalling characteristics (the root should stall before the tip so that the pilot may realize
and avoid a stall by sensing the vibrations on his control stick), it is

46
usually necessary to provide a lower t/c to the tip section and a higher t/c to the root section.
Hence,
Section used at the mean aerodynamic chord – NACA 0404
Section used at the tip 0012
Section used at the root - 2415
Table 8.1 Choosen Airfoil for various sections of wing
Chord Airfoil CLmax
Root NACA 2415 1.6
Tip NACA 0404 1.4
Mean NACA 0012 1.5
8.4 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY

8.4.1 Graph for Angle of Attack vs CLmax (Root)

47
8.4.2 Graph for Angle of Attack vs CLmax (tip)

8.4.3 Graph for Angle of Attack vs CLmax (Mean)

48
8.4.4 Graph for Angle of Attack vs CD max (Root)

8.4.5 Graph for Angle of Attack vs CD max (tip)

49
8.4.6 Graph for Angle of Attack vs CDmax (Mean)

Clmax Available :
CLmax = CLmax (Mean)+ CLmax (Root)+ CLmax (tip) / 3
CLmax = 1.5+1.6+1.4/3
=1.5

Result:

Thus the Airfoil parameters for the selected aircraft is obtained

50
 9. FLAP SELECTION
Aim
To select FLAPS for “11 Seated Business jet Aircraft”.

9.1 Theory

During takeoff and landing the airplane's velocity is relatively low. To keep the lift high (to
avoid objects on the ground!), airplane designers try to increase the wing area and change the
airfoil shape by putting some moving parts on the wings' leading and trailing edges. The part on
the leading edge is called a slat, while the part on the trailing edge is called a flap. The flaps and
slats move along metal tracks built into the wings. Moving the flaps aft (toward the tail) and the
slats forward increases the wing area. Pivoting the leading edge of the slat and the trailing edge
of the flap downward increases the effective camber of the airfoil, which increases the lift. In
addition, the large aft projected area of the flap increases the drag of the aircraft. This helps the
airplane slow down for landing.
9.2 Types of Flaps

Types of flap systems include:

Krueger flap: hinged flap on the leading edge. Often called a "droop".

Plain flap: rotates on a simple hinge.

Split flap: upper and lower surfaces are separate, the lower surface operates like a plain flap,
but the upper surface stays immobile or moves only slightly.

Gouge flap: a cylindrical or conical aerofoil section which rotates backwards and downwards
about an imaginary axis below the wing, increasing wing area and chord without affecting trim.
Invented by Arthur Gouge for Short Brothers in 1936.

Fowler flap: slides backwards before hinging downwards, thereby increasing both camber and
chord, creating a larger wing surface better tuned for lower speeds. It also provides some slot
effect. The Fowler flap was invented by Harlan D. Fowler .
Fairey-Youngman flap: moves body down before moving aft and rotating. Slotted flap: a
slot (or gap) between the flap and the wing enables high pressure air from below the wing to re-

51
energize the boundary layer over the flap. This helps the airflow to stay attached to the flap,
delaying the stall.
Blown flaps: systems that blow engine air over the upper surface of the flap at certain angles
to improve lift characteristics.

52
 Fig 9.1 Types of Flaps

9.3 SELECTED FLAP

A wing designed for efficient high-speed flight is often quite different from one designed solely
for take-off and landing. Take-off and landing distances are strongly influenced by aircraft
stalling speed, with lower stall speeds requiring lower acceleration or deceleration and
correspondingly shorter field lengths. It is always possible to reduce stall speed by increasing
wing area, but it is not desirable to cruise with hundreds of square feet of extra wing area
(and the associated weight and drag), area that is only needed for a few minutes. It is also
possible to reduce stalling speed by reducing weight, increasing air density, or increasing wing
CLmax. The latter parameter is the most interesting. One can design a wing airfoil that
compromises cruise efficiency to obtain a good CLmax, but it is usually more efficient to include
movable leading and/or trailing edges so that one may obtain good high speed performance while
achieving a high CLmax at take-off and landing. The primary goal of a high lift system is a high
CLmax; however, it may also be desirable to maintain low drag at take-off, or high drag on
approach. It is also necessary to do this with a system that has low weight and high reliability.

Fig 9.2 Selected Flap image

Our flap is Double fowler flap the required value is at above.

53
TAKE-OFF CL max DUE TO FLAP
During Take-off Flap deflection up to 200
Δ (CL max ) = 0.5 + 1.008
= 1.508
LANDING CL maxDUE TO FLAP
During Landing Flap deflection up to 500
Δ (CL max ) = 0.9 + 1.008
= 1.908

Result:
Thus the Flaps for the selected aircraft is selected

54
 10. FUSELAGE AND CABIN LAYOUT
Aim
To select Fuselage and cabin layout for “11 seated Business jet Aircraft”.

10.1 Theory

The interiors of business aircraft are laid out more flexibly than are commercial transports.
Interior appointments often cost millions of dollars and can be very luxurious, especially for the
large long range aircraft such as the Gulfstream V or Global Express. Business aircraft based on
commercial transports such as Boeing Business Jet provide even greater possibilities.

Cabin layout of of 11 SEATER BUSINESS AIRCRAFT.

Fig 10.1 Cabin layout (Insert your cabin layout)

Cabin parameters obtained from similar transport aircrafts
Seat pitch = 1,93m
Seat width = 0.56m
Aisle width=0.70m
Seats abreast=2
No. of aisles=1

10.2 FUSELAGE LAYOUT-INTRODUCTION

The fuselage layout is important as the length of the entire aircraft depends on this. The length
and diameter of the fuselage is related to the seating arrangement. The fuselage of a passenger
aircraft is divided into a number of sections:
a. Nose
b. Cockpit
c. Cabin
d. Tail fuselage

55
Functions of fuselage:
provides of volume for payload
provide overall structural integrity
Possible mounting of landing gear and power plant
Once fundamental configuration is establishment, fuselage layout proceeds almost independent
of other design aspects.
Pressurization
If required, it has a major impact upon the overall shape.
Overall effect depends on the level of pressurization.
Low Differential Pressurisation:
Defined as no greater than 0.27 bar (4 psi).
Mainly applicable to fighters where crew are also equipped with pressure suits.
Cockpit pressurisation primarily provides survivable environment in case of suit failure at
high altitude.
Also used on some general aviation aircraft to improve passenger comfort at moderate
altitude.
Pressure compartment has to avoid use of flat surfaces.
Normal (High) Differential Pressurisation:
Usual requirement is for effective altitude to be no more than 11 km (32000 ft) ISA for
passenger transports.
Implied pressure differentials are:
0.37 bar (5.5 psi) for aircraft at 7.6 km (25,000 ft).
0.58 bar (8.5 psi) for aircraft at 13.1 km (43,000 ft).
0.65 bar (9.4 psi) for aircraft at 19.8 km (65,000 ft).
High pressure differential required across most of fuselage for passenger transports so often
over-riding fuselage structural design requirement
10.3 FUSELAGE SIZING:
The required value of Fuselage size is taken from the graph
L FUSELAGE = 29.45m [10.1]
10.3.1 NOSE AND COCKPIT-FRONT FUSELAGE:

56
The layout of the flight deck and specified pilot window geometry is often the starting point of
the overall fuselage layout. For the current design, flight decks of various airplanes are
considered and the value of is found to be 0.03 [10.2]
Lnose/Lfuselage = 0.03
Lnos = 0.03 × 29.45
Lnos = 0.883 m [10.3]
The cockpit length for a 2 member crew is given by RAYMER

Fig 10.2 Cockpit layout

Honeywell’s avionics suite is designed for commercial airline applications

57
 Fig 10.3 Honeywell's Avionic Suite (Place image of What You Choosed)
10.4 Passenger Cabin Layout

Fig 10.4 Passanger layout

Two major geometric parameters that specify the passenger cabin are Cabin Diameter and Cabin
Length. These are in turn decided by more specific details like number of seats, seat width,
seating arrangement (number abreast), seat pitch, aisle width and number of aisles.
We choose a circular cross section for the fuselage. The overall size must be kept small to reduce
aircraft weight and drag, yet the resulting shape must provide a comfortable and flexible cabin
interior which will appeal to the customer airlines. The main decision to be taken is the number

58
of seats abreast and the aisle arrangement. The number of seats across will fix the number of
rows in the cabin and thereby the fuselage length. Design of the cabin cross section is further
complicated by the need to provide different classes like first class, business class, economy
class etc.
10.4.1 CABIN LENGTH
The total number of seats (11) is distributed as 4 seats abreast. Cabin parameters are chosen
based on standards of similar airplanes.
The various parameters chosen are as follows
Seat pitch =0.86m
Seat width =0.93m
Aisle width =0.43m
Seats abreast =2
No. of aisles =1
Hence, the total cabin length will be = seat pitch × rows
=0.86 × 19 + additional space
Total cabin length =m
10.4.5 CABIN DIAMETER:
Using the number of seats abreast, seat width, aisle width we calculate the internal diameter of
the cabin.
dfus (internal) = 3.20 m
According to the standards prescribed by Raymer, chapter 9, the structural thickness is given by
t = 0.02df + 1 inch
= 0.02 × 3.20 + 0.0254
t = 0.0894m
Therefore the external diameter of the fuselage is obtained as
= 3.20 + 0.0894×2
External diameter = 3.378 m
10.5 REAR FUSELAGE:
The rear fuselage profile is chosen to provide a smooth, low drag shape which supports the tail
surfaces. The lower side of the provide adequate clearance for aircraft when rotation during
takeoff. The rear fuselage should also house the auxiliary power unit (APU). Based on data
collected for similar aircraft we choose the ratio Ltail / dfus as 4.
10.5.1 Total fuselage length:
Various parts of the fuselage are indicated below
Cockpit length = 13.68
Cabin length = 16.58
Total = 30.26

59
Result:
The Fuselage and Cabin layout for the selected aircraft is finalized in this section

60
 11. TAIL SECTION
Aim
To select Tail section for “11seated Business jet Aircraft”.

11.1 Theory

The type and area of the tail surfaces are important in determining the stability of the airplane. A
conventional tail arrangement is chosen. Some of the important parameters that decide the
aerodynamic characteristics of the tail are area ratio (St/S), tail volume ratio (VH and Vv), tail
arm, tail span etc. All this parameters have to be decided for both the horizontal and vertical tail.

Fig 11.1 Types of aircraft tail

From the above list of tail types, the T-tail unit type is chosen which the most suitable configuration for
the current design

11.2. T-TAIL
A T-tail is an aft tail configuration (see figure. 34) that looks like the letter “T”;which implies the
vertical tail is located on top of the horizontal tail.
The T-tailconfiguration is another aft tail configuration that provides a few advantages,
while it has a few disadvantages. The major advantage of a T-tail configuration is that it is out of
the regions of wing wake, wing downwash, wing vortices, and engine exit flow (i.e. hot and
turbulent high speed gas). This allows the horizontal tail to provide a higher efficiency, and a

61
safer structure. The lower influence from the wing results in a smaller horizontal tail area; and
the lower effect from the engine leads in a less tail vibration and buffet. The less tail vibration
increases the life of the tail with a lower fatigue problem. On the other hand, the disadvantages
that associated with a T-tail are:
1. vertical tail structure,
2. deep stall.
The bending moment created by the horizontal tail must be transferred to the fuselage through
the vertical tail. This structural behavior requires the vertical tail main spar to be stronger; which
cause the vertical tail to get heavier.
Aircraft with T-tail are subject to a dangerous condition known as the deep stall (Ref. 6); which
is a stalled condition at an angle of attack far above the original stall angle.T-tail Aircraft often
suffer a sever pitching moment instability at angles well above the initial stall angle of about 13
degrees, without wing leading edge high lift device, or about 18 degrees, with wing leading edge
high lift device. If the pilot allows the aircraft to enter to this unstable region, it might rapidly
pitch up to a higher angle of about 40 degrees.
11.3. HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL TAIL CALCULATION:
From the data collected on similar transport aircraft, we choose the following values for the tail
parameters
Table 11.1 Parameters for Tail selection
Parameter Horizontal Tail Vertical Tail
Aspect Ratio (St/S) 3.5-4.5 1.5-2.5
Aspect Ratio 3-6 1.5-3.5
Taper Ratio 0.4-0.6 0.1-0.7
11.3.1 TAIL AREA:
The areas of the horizontal and vertical tail (SH and Sv) are calculated as,
SH = 0.40 × 57.16
SH = 22.864 m2
Sv = 0.31× 57.16
SV = 17.72m2
11.3.2 TAIL SPAN:
The span of the horizontal and vertical tail (bh and bv) are given as,
bh = (AhSH)0.5
bv= ((AhSB))0.5
Taking ARH = 5 and ARV = 1.7, we get
bh =35.433m
bv =7.974m

Result:
The Tail section for the11 seated Business jet Aircraf is finalized in this section

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 12. CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Aim
To identify the center of gravity for “11seated Business jet Aircraft”.

12.1 Theory

The center-of-gravity (CG) is the point at which an aircraft would balance if it were possible to
suspend it at that point. It is the mass center of the aircraft, or the theoretical point at which the
entire weight of the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated. Its distance from the reference datum
is determined by dividing the total moment by the total weight of the aircraft. The center-of
gravity point affects the stability of the aircraft. To ensure the aircraft is safe to fly, the center of
gravity must fall within specified limits

Fig 12.1 Centre of Gravity

12.1 CENTER OF GRAVITY IS CALCULATED AS FOLLOWS:
Determine the weights and arms of all mass within the aircraft.
Multiply weights by arms for all mass to calculate moments.
Add the moments of all mass together.
Divide the total moment by the total weight of the aircraft to give an overall arm.
The arm that results from this calculation must be within the arm limits for the center of gravity.
If it is not, weight in the aircraft must be removed, added (rarely), or redistributed until the center
of gravity falls within the prescribed limits.

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 For the sake of simplicity, centre of gravity calculations are usually performed along only
a single line from the zero point of the reference datum.
Weight is calculated simply by adding up all weight in the aircraft. This weight must be
within the allowable weight limits for the aircraft.
First estimate weight components for which we have some idea of their location of the
engine, the passengers and pilot, and the baggage.
Considering the forces to be acting at middle each part, and hence taking moment about
the nose, we get the centre of gravity.
CG = {(Nose Weight x Nose length) + (Cabin Weight x Cabin length) + (Engine Weight
x Engine length)+ (Wing Weight x Wing length)}/( Nose length+ Cabin length+ Engine length+
Wing length)
CG=14.4 m
12.2 Layout

Fig:12.2 Center Of Gravity Layout

Result:
The Center of gravity for the selected aircraft is finalized in this section

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 13. LANDING GEAR SELECTION
Aim
To identify the center of gravity for “11seated Business jet Aircraft”.

13.1 Theory

Every aircraft maintained in today’s Aerospace Company is equipped with a landing gear system.
Most Aerospace company aircraft also use arresting and catapult gear. The landing gear is that
portion of the aircraft that supports he weight of the aircraft while it is on the ground. The
landing gear contains components that are necessary for taking off and landing the aircraft safely.
Some of these components are landing gear struts that absorb landing and taxiing shocks; brakes
that are used to stop and, in some cases, steer the aircraft; nose wheel steering for steering the
aircraft; and in some cases, nose catapult components that provide the aircraft with carrier deck
takeoff capabilities.
13.2 LANDING GEAR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
The following design requirements are identified to be satisfied: ground clearance requirement,
tip-back (or tip-forward angle if tail gear) angle requirement, take-off rotation requirement,
overturn angel requirement, structural integrity, aircraft ground stability, aircraft ground
controllability, low cost, maintainable, and

manufacturable.
Fig 13.1 Main landing gear Assembly

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13.3 LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATION
This is a transport aircraft, and the passenger’s comfort is an important requirement. So,
the tail gear, bicycle, single main configurations would not satisfy this requirement.
Three viable configurations are:
1. Tricycle or nose-gear,
2. Quadricycle, and
3. Multi-bogey.
4. Ski type gear
5. Float type gear

Fig:13.2 Types Of Landing Gear

Since the aircraft weight is not very high, both quadricycle, and multibogey configurations are
set aside due to their cost and weight. Therefore the best landing gear configuration for this
aircraft is Nose gear or tricycle. An attractive feature for this configuration is that the aircraft will
be horizontal at the ground. The passengers do not have to climb during boarding period. The
nose gear also decreases the take-off run, and at the same time, the aircraft will take-off sooner.
13.4 FIXED OR RETRACTABLE

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The aircraft must compete with other transport aircraft in the market, and it must have a fairly
high performance, so a retractable landing gear (see figure) is the best option. The cost of this
configuration covered by the customers (passengers). Then, this will reduce the aircraft drag
during flight and therefore the aircraft will feature a higher performance. The higher landing gear
weight due to retraction system will be paid off compared with the other advantages of
a retractable landing gear

Fig:13.3 Main Landing Gear in Aircraft

13.4.1 STEERING OF LANDING GEAR
The steering mechanism used on the ground with wheeled landing gear varies by aircraft, but
there are several types of steering.
RUDDER STEERING
DIRECT STEERING
TILLER STEERING
Maximum Takeoff Weight of the aircraft (from Weight Estimation) =42851.03 Kg
13.5 TYRE SIZING
During landing and takeoff, the undercarriage supports the total weight of the airplane.
Undercarriage is of three types
Bicycle type
Tricycle type
Tricycle tail wheel type

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13.6 LANDING GEAR HEIGHT
The aircraft cg is at the same height as the wing mid-plane. The landing gear height is a function
of its attachment location. The nose gear will be naturally attached to the fuselage. But, the main
gear attachment tends to have two main alternatives: 1. Attach to the fuselage, 2. Attach to the
wing. As soon the wheel track is determined, we are able to decide about landing gear
attachment; and then the landing gear height may be determined.
13.6.1ATTACH MAIN GEAR TO THE FUSELAGE:
HLG = Haircraft –( Dfuse +Htail )
=7.8-(3.20+3.5)
HLG = 1.1 m

13.7 LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

As a natural selection, the nose gear is attached to the fuselage nose. However, for the main gear,
we need to compare the fuselage diameter with the wheel track. It is observed that the fuselage
diameter (2.78m) is smaller than the wheel track (29.22 m). Hence, the main gear cannot be
attached to the fuselage. Thus, main gear may be either attached directly to the wing; or attached
under the nacelle. In order to determine the best location, several design requirements must be
examined, which is beyond the scope of this example. For the time being, it is decided to attach
the landing gear to the wing. Thus, the landing gear height will be:
HLG = 1.1m
Tyre sizes 30×9.5-14(main) ,19.5×6 .75-8(nose)
Tyre pressure 8.60-9.00 bars
Minimum ground turning radius nose wheel 12.51m , Minimum turning circle 29.22m
(The above measurements are collected from similar aircraft with given landing gear)

Result:
The landing gear for the selected aircraft is finalized in this section

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 14. LIFT ESTIMATION
Aim
To calculate lift for “11seated Business jet Aircraft”.

14.1 Theory

LIFT:
Component of aerodynamic force generated on aircraft perpendicular to flight direction.
14.2 Lift Coefficient (CL)
Amount of lift generated depends on:
Planform area (S), air density (p), flight speed (V), lift coefficient (CL)
L = ½ ×ρ×V2×S×CL
CL is a measure of lifting effectiveness and mainly depends upon:
Section shape, plan form geometry, angle of attack (α), compressibility Effect (mach number),
viscous effects (Reynolds number)
Shear stress distribution.
Shear stress primarily contributes to overall drag force on aircraft.
Lift mainly due to pressure distribution, especially on main lifting surfaces, i.e. wing.
Require (relatively) low pressure on upper surface and higher pressure on lower surface.
Any shape can be made to produce lift if either cambered or inclined to flow direction.
Classical aerofoil section is optimum for high subsonic lift/drag ratio.
Pressure variations with angle of attack

Fig:14.3 Pressure Variation

Negative (nose-down) pitching moment at zero-lift (negative α).

positive lift at α =00

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 Highest pressure at LE stagnation point, lowest pressure at crest on upper surface.
Peak suction pressure on upper surface strengthens and moves forwards with increasing α.
Most lift from near LE on upper surface due to suction.

14.3 CALCULATION:

CL cruise = 2W/(ρVc2S)
Where = ρ is density at cruise altitude
CL cruise = 0.426
LIFT AT TAKE-OFF
CL take- off = CL cruise + Δ CL flap
where, Take off flap at 200 is
=0.427 + 0.5
C L take- off = 0.926
VR = 1.1 Vstall
= 1.1 ×65.97
VR = 72.56m/sec
L take-off = ½ ×ρ×VR2×S×CL take –off
where, ρ = 1.225 (at sea level)
= ½ ×1.225 × (72.56)^2 ×36.42×0.926
Ltake-off =108.77 KN
LIFT AT LANDING
CL landing = CL cruise + Δ CL flap
= 0.426+ 0.9
CL landing =1.326
VR = 0.7 Vstall
= 0.7 × 65.97
VR = 46.17 m/sec
where, ρ = 1.225 (at sea level)
L landing = ½ ×ρ× VR2 ×S×CL landing
= ½ ×1.225 × (46.17)^2×36.42×1.326
L landing = 63.053 KN

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Result:
Thus the lift for the selected aircraft is finalized in this section

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 15. DRAG ESTIMATION
Aim
To calculate drag for “11seated Business jet Aircraft”.

15.1 Theory

DRAG:
Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force which is parallel to the flight
direction (or relative oncoming airflow).It always acts to oppose the direction of motion. It is the
undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the desirable component.
15.2Drag Coefficient (CD)
Amount of drag generated depends on:
Planform area (S), air density, flight speed (V), drag coefficient (CD)
CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon:
Section shape, planform geometry, angle of attack, compressibility effects (Mach number),
viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).
Drag Components
Skin Friction.
Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.
Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary layers.

Fig 15.1 Drag Separation

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Due to static pressure distribution around body - Drag is the resolved component of the complete
aerodynamic force which is parallel to the flight direction (or elative oncoming airflow).It always
acts to oppose the direction of motion.
It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the desirable component.
Wave Drag
Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and supersonic speeds. Result of both direct
shock losses and the influence of shock waves on the boundary layer.
Often decomposed into portions related to:
Lift.
Thickness or Volume.

15.3 DRAG CALCULATION:

CD Take-off = CD o+KCL take- off2

K= 1/(πeAR)
CD Take-off = 0.03 + (0.037 × (0.926)2
CD Take-off = 0.061
DTake -off = ½ ×ρ×V2×S×CD take-off
= ½ ×1.225 × (72.56)2×36.42×0.61
DTake-off = 71.642 KN
DRAG AT LANDING
CD Landing = CD0 + KCL landing2
where CD0 = 0.03 and
= 0.03 + (0.037 × (1.326)2)
CD Landing = 0.932
DLanding = ½ ×ρ×V2×S×CD Landing
= ½ ×1.225 × (72.56)^2×36.42×0.932
D Landing = 109.46 KN

Result:

Thus the Drag for the selected aircraft is finalized in this section

73
 16. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Aim
To calculate performance characteristics for “11seated Business jet Aircraft”.

16.1 TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE

Distance from rest to clearance of obstacle in flight path and usually considered in two parts:
Ground roll - rest to lift-off (SLO)
Airborne distance - lift-off to specified height (35 ft FAR, 50 ft others).
The aircraft will accelerate up to lift-off speed (VLO = about 1.2 x VStall) when it will then
be rotated.
16.2 A first-order approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be made from:
This shows its sensitivity to W (W2) and ρ (1/ ρ2 since T also varies with ρ). SLO may be
reduced by increasing T, S or CL max (high lift devices relate to latter two). An improved
approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be made by including drag, rolling
resistance and ground effect terms.

Fig 16.1 Take-off for aircraft

SLO =1.44 w2/(gρSCLmax{T-[D+µr(W-L)]}av

SLO=1769.2m

16.3 CLIMBING
Increasing the power by advancing the throttle produces a marked difference in the rate of climb.
Climb depends upon the reserve power or thrust. Reserve power is the available power over and

74
above that required to maintain horizontal flight at a given speed. Thus, if an airplane is equipped
with an engine which produces 200 total available horsepower and the airplane requires only 130
horsepower at a certain level flight speed, the power available for climb is 70 horsepower.
Although we sometimes use the terms "power" and "thrust" interchangeably, erroneously
implying that they are synonymous, it is well to distinguish between the two when discussing
climb performance. Work is the product of a force moving through a distance and is usually
independent of time. Work is measured by several standards; the most common unit is called a
"foot-pound." If a 1 pound mass is raised 1 foot, a work unit of 1 foot-pound has been performed.
The common unit of mechanical power is horsepower; one horsepower is work equivalent to
lifting 33,000 pounds a vertical distance of 1 foot in 1 minute. The term "power," implies work
rate or units of work per unit of time, and as such is a function of the speed at which the force is
developed. "Thrust," also a function of work, means the force which imparts a change in the
velocity of a mass. This force is measured in pounds but has no element of time or rate. It can be
said then, that during a steady climb, the rate of climb is a function of excess thrust.

Fig 16.2 Weight component indication

When the airplane is in steady level flight or with a slight angle of climb, the vertical component
of lift is very nearly the same as the actual total lift. Such climbing flight would exist with the lift
very nearly equal to the weight. The net thrust of the power plant may be inclined relative to the
flight path but this effect will be neglected here for the sake of simplicity. Although the weight of
the airplane acts vertically, a component of weight will act rearward along the flight path If it is
assumed that the airplane is in a steady climb with essentially a small inclination of the flight
path, the summation of forces along the flight path resolves to the following:
Forces forward = Forces after

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The basic relationship neglects some of the factors which may be of importance for airplanes of
very high climb performance. (For example, a more detailed consideration would account for the
inclination of thrust from the flight path, lift not being equal to weight, a subsequent change of
induced drag, etc.) However this basic relationship will define the principal factors affecting
climb performance.
This relationship means that, for a given weight of the airplane, the angle of climb depends on
the difference between thrust and drag, or the excess thrust . Of course, when the excess thrust is
zero, the inclination of the flight path is zero and the airplane will be in steady, level flight.
When the thrust is greater than the drag, the excess thrust will allow a climb angle depending on
the value of excess thrust. On the other hand, when the thrust is less than the drag, the deficiency
of thrust will allow an angle of descent.

Fig 16.3 Thrust vs Climb angle

RATE OF CLIMB

Rate of Climb = [TxVstall – DxVstall] / W

Rate of Climb = 8.92 m/s

16.4 MANOEUVRES / TURNING

An aircraft is capable of performing many different types of turns and manoeuvres.

Three of the more common turns will be considered here in simplistic terms:
Constant altitude banked turn.

76
 Vertical pull-up manoeuvre.
Vertical pull-down manoeuvre
In the case of a commercial transport aircraft, it is capable of performing only a constant altitude
banked turn and not any vertical pull-up or pull-down manoeuvre.
CONSTANT ALTITUDE BANKED TURN
steady condition:
T=D
Force balance gives:
W = mg = Lcos θ
Fr = MV2/r = Lsin θ
tan θ = V2/(Rg)
So for given speed and turn radius there is only one correct bank angle for a coordinate (no
sideslip) turn. Maneuverability equations simplified through use of normal load factor (n) = L/W.
In the turn, n = L/W = sec θ > 1
and is therefore determined by bank angle. Turn radius (R) and turn rate (θ) are good indicators
of aircraft maneuverability.
W = L cos θ
let, θ = 300
W =42851.03 × cos (30)
W =37110.8Kg
n=L/w
n=1.154
Turn Radius, RT = v2/gѴ(n2-1)
RT = 3797m
16.5 GLIDING
Similar to the steady un accelerated case but with T = 0.

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 Fig 16.4 Gliding Performance

Force balance gives:

Ø = tan-1(1/L/D)

Ø = 4.23°

16.6 LANDING PERFORMANCE

APPROACH & LANDING
Consists of three phases:
Airborne approach at constant glide angle (around 30) and constant speed.
Flare - transitional manoeuvre with airspeed reduced from about 1.3 Vstall down to touch-
down speed.
Ground roll - from touch-down to rest.
Ground roll landing distance (s3 or sl) estimated from

Where, Vav may be taken as 0.7 x touch-down speed (Vt or V2) and Vt is assumed as 1.3 x
Vstall.
μr is higher than for take-off since brakes are applied – use μr = 0.4 for paved surface.
If thrust reversers (Tr) are applied, use:

Landing Runway distance = 1718.10 m

16.7 ENDURANCE:

78
E= (1/ct)(L/D)ln(Wo-Wf/W0)

Where,
W0 is the gross weight of the aircraft
W1 is the weight if aircraft without fuel
Ct is the specific fuel consumption = 0.7

E=9.56 hrs

Result:

Thus the Performance characteristics were calculated for the selected aircraft.

79
17. THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

FRONT VIEW

RIGHT VIEW

TOP VIEW

80
SPECIFICATION DATA FOR DESIGNED AIRCRAFT

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Maximum take-off weight : 42851.03 Kg
 Tank capacity : 18932.36 Kg
 Required engine : General Electric CF34-8C
 Fuel weight : 18854.45 Kg

AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

 Wing span : 30.31m

 Root chord (Cr) : 4.355m
 Tip chord (Ct) : 2.613
 Sweep angle (A) : 3.25
 Dihedral angle ( r ) : 1.78
 Wing position : Low wing
 Airfoil selection CLcruise : 0.426
 t/c ratio : 0.036
 Selected airfoil : NACA 0012
 Selected flap : Double slotted fowler flap

FUSELAGE CHARATERISTICS

 Cabin diameter : 3.20

 Cabin length : 16.58m
 Total fuselage length : 30.26
 Selected tail : T-tail

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 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

 Center Of Gravity : 14.4m

 Landing Gear : Tri-cycle
 Lift At Takeoff : 34911.90N
 Lift At Landing : 21032.02 N
 Drag Estimation (Take-off) : 30984.31 N
 Landing : 26156.22 N
 Take-off Runway Distance : 994.30 m
 Rate Of Climb : 4.20 m/s
 Landing Runway Distance : 1781.3m
 Endurance : 9.56 hr

82
 CONCLUSION

After all analysis and design the first part of the aircraft design project has

come for landing. The result of the output specifications tell about features, advantages,

disadvantages, future requirements and all amenities in and about the aircraft.

The overview of the BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT is very need-of hour for today corporate and
entrepreneurs who are travelling across transcontinental and domestically with less span of time with hassle-
free.
The main advantage of this class aircraft is pacifying from commercial jet operators, less-operating cost
and fuel consumption, less purchase cost and least time of total travel time enveloped. Since it takes fraction of
kilometres for landing it can operate at any airport rather large aircraft whose need mile and more run for take-
off.
And always there will be existence of negative if present of positive. This disadvantages are it cannot fly

inter-continental. Since it designs for short range.

Design is a fine blend of science, creativity, presence of mind and the application of each one of them
at the appropriate time, Design of anything needs experience and an optimistic progress towards the ideal
system. This involves the strong fundamentals in science and mathematics and their skilful applications,
which is a tough job endowed upon the design. We have enough hard work for this design project. A design never
gets completed in a flutter sense but it is one step further towards ideal system, But during the design of this

aircraft, we learnt a lot about aeronautics and its implications when applied to an aircraft design.

83
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Introduction to Flight by J.D. Anderson

2. Aerodynamics by Clancy

3. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by J.D. Anderson

4. The Design of the Aeroplane by Darrol Stinton

5. Jane's All the World's Aircraft

6. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach by Daniel. P. Raymer

WEBSITE REFERENCES
1. www.wikipedia.org

2. www.naca/aerofoil.gov

3. www.worldaircraftdierctory.com

4. www.dutchops.com

5. www.aerospace-technology.com

6. www.airliners.net

7. And other websites related to design of aircrafts.

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