2023 (Fall)

1a. Why architect need to know about the electrical basic design?
Architects need to know about basic electrical design to ensure efficient space planning, compliance with
safety codes, effective collaboration with engineers, integration of energy-efficient and smart
technologies, and to enhance the overall functionality and aesthetics of the building.
The electrical energy is produced at generating stations and through the transmission network, it is
transmitted to the consumers. Between the generating stations and the distribution stations, three
different levels of voltage are used. The high voltage is required for long distance transmission and low
voltage is required for utility purpose. The voltage level goes on decreasing from the transmission system
to the distribution system.
a) Generation
The place where electric power produced by the parallel connected three phase alternators is called
generating station (i.e., power plant). The normal generating voltage is 11 KV / 11.5 KV / 12 KV or 13 KV. But
economically, it is good to step up the produced voltage from (11 KV / 11.5 KV / 12 KV / 13 KV) to (66 KV /
132 KV / 220 KV) by step up transformer. The generated power is to be transmitted to the locations where
it is demanded like industries, cities which are known as load.
b) Transmission
Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site such as a
power plant to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are
known as a transmission network. Electric power can be transmitted by underground power cables or
overhead power cables.
c) Distribution
Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electric power; it carries electricity from the
transmission system to the individual consumers. Circuit breakers and switchgear enables the substation
to be disconnected from the transmission grid or for the distribution lines to be connected. Distribution
line generally consists of -
• Feeders
• Distributors
• Service mains
2a. What do you understand by single phase and three phase systems? Explain the
different Electrical wiring practices used in your home
Single-Phase Power -
Single-phase power is the most common form of AC power delivery. Because residential power
requirements are generally much less than business power requirements, single-phase is sufficient. The
term Alternating Current, or AC, describes how the power alternates in cycles as the voltage peaks and
dips continuously between a positive and negative amplitude. As you might expect, single-phase power
produces a single wave of power, as shown below -
This graph shows that the power output of a single-
phase power supply is not constant, meaning its voltage
rises and falls as it passes through zero twice per cycle.
During these moments, there is a temporary absence of
power. So, single-phase power is not constant. While
satisfactory for most residential needs, a standard 15A,
120V branch circuit can only support electrical loads up
to 1800 watts. A home with a 100A, 240V electrical
utility supply is limited to loads up to 24,000V.
3-Phase Power -
Unlike single-phase, 3-phase power produces three
separate wave currents so there is no temporary
absence of power.
3-Phase power delivers power at a steady, constant
rate and can reach higher voltage levels up to 480V in
the USA. This steady stream of power and ability to
handle higher loads makes a 3-phase supply ideal for
industrial and commercial operations.
3a. Define 1 lux. State Inverse Square Law and Cosine Law with necessary
diagrams.
One lux (Latin for “light”) is the amount of illumination provided when one lumen is evenly
distributed over an area of one square meter. This is also equivalent to the illumination that
would exist on a surface all points of which are one meter from a point source of one
international candle (candela).

Lambert’s Cosine Law

The light received by any surface depends upon the angle made by the normal to the surface, to the light
flux. Lambert's cosine law of illumination explains the relation between the illumination of the surface
and the cosine of the angle.
Statement
The Lambert's cosine law of illumination states that
"The illumination of a surface is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle between the normal to
the surface and the direction of incident light".
That is,
E ∝ cos θ ⋅⋅⋅(1)

Explanation
Inverse Square Law
The light received by any surface depends upon the distance of that surface from the source of light. The inverse
square law gives the relation between the distance of the surface and the illumination of the surface.

Statement
The inverse square law states that
"the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of distance of the surface from a point source of
light."

Explanation
Let us consider a point source of light 'S' having luminous intensity 'I' lumens per steradian. If two surfaces having
areas A1 and A2 are placed at distances 'r' and 'R' meters away respectively from the point source. Let these
surfaces be enclosed in the same solid angle ‘ω’.
3b. What Is Earthing system? What are the purpose of Earthing? Explain the Electrical
Earthing system in details.
The process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and equipment to huge mass of
earth by a wire having negligible resistance is called earthing.

Purpose of Earthing
• To save human life from danger of electrical shock
or death by blowing a fuse i.e. To provide an
alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it
will not endanger the user
• To protect buildings, machinery & appliances under
fault conditions i.e.. To ensure that all exposed
conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential.
• To provide safe path to dissipate lightning and short
circuit currents.
• To provide stable platform for operation of
sensitive electronic equipment i.e. To maintain the
voltage at any part of an electrical system at a
known value so as to prevent over current or
excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment .
• To provide protection against static electricity
from friction

Methods of Earthing
1. Plate Earthing
• In this type of earthing plate either of copper or of G.I.
is buried into the ground at a depth of not less than 3
meter from the ground level.
• The earth plate is embedded in alternative layer of coke
and salts for a minimum thickness of about 15cm.
• The earth wire(copper wire for copper plate earthing and
G.I. wire for G.I. plate earthing) is securely bolted to an
earth plate with the help of bolt nut and washer made of
copper, in case of copper plate earthing and of G.I. in
case of G.I. plate earthing.
2. Pipe Earthing
• Pipe earthing is best form of earthing, and it is cheap
also in this system of earthing a GI pipe of 38 mm Dia
and 2meters length is embedded vertically in ground to
work as earth electrode, but the depth depend upon the
soil conditions, there is no hard and fast rule for this.
• But the wire is embedded up to the wet soil.
• The earth wire are fastened to the top section of the pipe
with nut and bolts.
• The pit area around the GI pipe filled with salt and coal
mixture for improving the soil conditions and efficiency
of the earthing system.
• It can take heavy leakage current for the same electrode
size in comparison to plate earthing.
• The earth wire connection with GI pipes being above
the ground level can be checked for carrying out
continuity test as and when desired, while in plate
earthing it is difficult.
• In summer season to have an effective earthing three or
four bucket of water is put through the funnel for better
continuity of earthing.
3. Rod Earthing
• In this system of earthing 12.5mm diameter solid rods of copper 16mm diameter solid rod of GI or
steel or hollow section of 25mm GI pipe of length not less than 3 meters are driven vertically into the
earth
• In order to, increase the embedded length of electrode under the ground, which is some time
necessary to reduce the earth resistance to desired value more than one rod section are hammered one
above the other.
• This system of earthing is suitable for area which are sandy in character .
• This system of earthing is very cheap
4. Strip Earthing
• In this system of earthing strip electrode of cross section not less than 25mm into 1.6mm of copper or
25mm 4mm of GI or steel are buried in horizontal trenches of minimum depth of 0.5m
• If round conductor are used their cross-sectional area shall not be smaller than three if copper is used
and 6mm2 if GI or steel is used.
• The length of buried conductor shall be sufficient to give the required earth resistance (about 0.5Ωto
1.5Ω)
• It shall however be not less than 15 m
• The electrode shall be as widely distributed as possible in a single straight or circular trenches
radiating from a point
• This type of earthing is used in rocky soil earth bed because at such places excavation work for plate
earthing is difficult
5. Earthing through Water Mains
4a. Describe the principles of natural ventilation. Mention its difference with forced
ventilation.
Natural ventilation is a method of providing fresh air to indoor spaces without relying on
mechanical systems. It leverages natural forces, such as wind and temperature differences, to
facilitate air movement and improve indoor air quality.
Principles
1. Stack Effect (Buoyancy Effect)
Mechanism - Warm air rises because it is less dense than cooler air. This effect creates a
pressure difference that drives cooler air into the building.
Application - Common in multi-story buildings, where warm air escapes through openings at the
top (e.g., vents or chimneys), drawing cooler air in through lower openings.
2. Wind Effect
Mechanism - Wind creates pressure differences on different sides of the building. The windward
side experiences higher pressure, pushing air into the building, while the leeward side experiences
lower pressure, allowing air to exit.
Application - Effective in buildings designed to align with prevailing wind directions. Openings are
placed to maximize airflow based on wind patterns.
3. Cross Ventilation
Mechanism - Involves placing openings on opposite sides of a room or building, allowing air to
flow through and ventilate the space.
Application - Best for long, narrow spaces where airflow can be directed from one side to the
other, enhancing air exchange and cooling.
4. Single-Sided Ventilation
Mechanism - Uses openings on one side of the building. Air enters through the openings and exits
through the same side, often assisted by the stack effect or wind pressure differences.
Application - Useful in buildings or rooms where cross ventilation is impractical.
5. Thermal Mass
Mechanism - Building materials with high thermal mass absorb and store heat during the day and
release it at night, helping to regulate indoor temperatures and support natural ventilation.
Application - Enhances comfort and efficiency in climates with significant diurnal temperature
variations.

Mechanical Ventilation S.N. Natural Ventilation

Mechanical ventilation uses fans to move 1. Relies on natural forces such as wind to
air through a building move air through a building

More effective than passive ventilation 2. Less effective than mechanical ventilation
systems as it is less precise & relies on sufficient
space for windows and doors. Also,
depends on outdoor conditions (weather,
traffic etc.)
More expensive to install and operate, 3. The simplest and most affordable type of
but there are long-term saving benefits ventilation system
Provides better thermal comfort than 4. Not suitable for spaces that require a
passive ventilation specific temperature level
Examples include extractor fans, MVHR 5. Examples include open windows and doors
(mechanical ventilation with heat
recovery)
4b. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of split-type air conditioning systems
compared to other types of systems. Also, draw the component diagram of Split A/C.
A Split-type air conditioner, also known as a split AC, is a cooling system that divides the components of a
traditional air conditioning system into two separate units - one located indoors and the other outdoors.
The outdoor unit houses the compressor and condenser components, while the indoor unit contains the
distribution and filter components.

Advantages
1. Efficient Cooling
- Split systems provide effective cooling and heating, with units designed for specific zones or
rooms, leading to better temperature control.
2. Quiet Operation
- The compressor and condenser are located outside the building, reducing noise levels indoors.
The indoor unit operates quietly, making it suitable for residential and office environments.
3. Flexible Installation
- The indoor unit can be installed in various locations within a room, allowing flexibility in design and
space utilization.
4. Energy Efficiency
- Generally, more energy-efficient than central air conditioning systems due to their ability to cool or
heat individual rooms as needed.
5. No Ductwork
- Eliminates the need for ductwork, reducing installation complexity and the risk of duct leaks,
which can lead to energy loss in central systems.
6. Zoning Capability
- Control - Allows for individual temperature control in different rooms or zones, enhancing comfort and
reducing energy consumption by cooling only occupied spaces.
Disadvantages
1. Initial Cost
- Higher upfront cost for installation compared to some other systems, due to the need for both
indoor and outdoor units.
2. Aesthetic Impact
- The indoor unit requires wall space, which may affect the room’s aesthetics. While modern units
are designed to be discreet, some users might find them obtrusive.
3. Limited Coverage -
- Typically designed to cool or heat a single room or small area. For larger spaces or multiple rooms,
multiple units may be required, increasing costs.
4. Maintenance -
- Requires regular maintenance of both
indoor and outdoor units. Filters need
frequent cleaning, and both units
must be serviced to ensure efficient
operation.

5. Installation Complexity -
- Installation requires a refrigerant line to
connect the indoor and outdoor units,
which can complicate installation in
certain buildings.
5a. Discuss the role of exhaust fans in maintaining indoor air quality, focusing on
their function, typical applications, and potential impact on building infiltration.
Exhaust fans play a crucial role in maintaining indoor air quality by removing stale air, moisture,
odors, and contaminants from indoor spaces. Here's a detailed look at their function, typical
applications, and potential impact on building infiltration -
Function of Exhaust Fans
1. Ventilation
Air Exchange - Exhaust fans help in exchanging indoor air with fresh outdoor air, reducing
the concentration of pollutants and improving air quality.
Humidity Control - They are effective in removing excess moisture from areas like
bathrooms and kitchens, which can prevent mold and mildew growth.
2. Odor Removal
Eliminating Odors - Exhaust fans are commonly used in kitchens and bathrooms to
remove unpleasant odors, ensuring a more comfortable indoor environment.
3. Heat Removal
Cooling Effect - In areas like attics or garages, exhaust fans can help in removing hot air,
thereby reducing the temperature and making these spaces more usable.

Potential Impact on Building Infiltration

1. Positive Pressure and Negative Pressure
Negative Pressure - When exhaust fans expel air from the building, it can create negative
pressure, causing outside air to be drawn in through any available openings (infiltration).
This can help in maintaining a continuous flow of fresh air.
Positive Pressure - If the building envelope is tight and there's insufficient makeup air,
running exhaust fans can lead to issues with pressure imbalance, potentially causing
back-drafting of combustion appliances.
2. Energy Efficiency
Increased Energy Usage - Uncontrolled infiltration can lead to increased heating and
cooling loads, as the HVAC system needs to condition the incoming air, potentially raising
energy consumption.
Improved HVAC Performance - Properly balanced ventilation, with exhaust fans paired
with adequate makeup air systems, can enhance HVAC efficiency by maintaining desired
indoor conditions without excessive infiltration.
3. Indoor Air Quality
Enhanced Air Quality - Proper use of exhaust fans reduces indoor pollutant levels,
moisture, and odors, contributing to a healthier indoor environment.
Contaminant Ingress - Infiltration through uncontrolled openings might bring in outdoor
pollutants, so it's essential to balance exhaust fan use with controlled ventilation
strategies.
4. Building Envelope
Durability Concerns - Excessive negative pressure and resultant infiltration can stress
the building envelope
5b. What do you mean by Sick Building Syndrome? What are the different methods
to eradicate it in buildings?
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) is a condition where occupants of a building experience acute health
effects and discomfort that seem to be linked to the time spent in that building, though no specific
illness or cause can be identified.
The main cause of Sick Building Syndrome is poor indoor air quality, which is influenced by
inadequate ventilation, chemical and biological contaminants, and adverse physical conditions
within the building.
Methods to Eradicate Sick Building Syndrome
1. Improve Ventilation
- Ensure that the HVAC system brings in sufficient fresh outdoor air to dilute indoor
pollutants.
- Ensure even distribution of ventilated air throughout the building, avoiding areas with
stagnant air.
- Maintain and clean HVAC systems regularly to prevent the buildup of contaminants.
2. Control Indoor Pollutants
- Use low-VOC and non-toxic materials and products. Minimize the use of strong chemicals
and ensure proper storage.
- Use air purifiers with HEPA filters to reduce particulate matter and activated carbon filters to
remove chemical contaminants.
3. Moisture and Mold Control
- Repair leaks in roofs, walls, and plumbing to prevent mold growth.
- Keep indoor humidity levels between 30% and 50% to inhibit mold and dust mite growth.
- Clean and disinfect areas prone to moisture accumulation, such as bathrooms and
kitchens.
4. Enhance Lighting and Ergonomics
- Ensure proper lighting levels with a mix of natural and artificial light to reduce eye strain.
- Design workspaces to be comfortable and conducive to productivity, reducing physical
stress and fatigue.
5. Regular Building Maintenance
- Conduct regular inspections and maintenance of the building’s structure, systems, and
cleanliness.
- Address issues such as leaks, HVAC malfunctions, and structural damage promptly to
prevent exacerbating SBS conditions.
6. Occupant Awareness and Participation
- Educate building occupants about the sources of indoor pollution and ways to minimize it.
- Implement systems for occupants to report issues and symptoms, allowing for timely
intervention.
6a. Differentiate between Traction and Hydraulic elevator. Write the importance of
counterweight in the action elevator.
Traction (Machine) Elevators S.N. Hydraulic Elevators

Lifted by ropes, which pass over a wheel 1. Supported by a piston at the bottom of the
attached to an electric motor above the elevator that pushes the elevator up as an
elevator shaft. electric motor forces oil or another hydraulic
fluid into the piston.
Used for mid and high-rise applications and 2. Used for low-rise applications of 2-8 stories.
have much higher travel speed.
Principle - see - saw 3. Principle - Pascal's pressure principle
Components - control system, sheave, 4. Components - tank, motor, valve, actuator
motor, counterweight, guiding rail.

The machine room is located at the upper 5. The machine room is located at the lowest level
most level, i.e., on the terrace. adjacent to the elevator shaft.

Importance of counterweight in the action elevator;

1. Balance and Stability

- The counterweight balances the elevator car,
ensuring smooth and stable operation.

2. Energy Efficiency
- It reduces the energy required by the motor,
lowering operational costs.

3. Improved Performance
- Allows for faster, smoother elevator movement with
less strain on the motor.

4. Enhanced Safety
- Prevents free-fall and assists in safe braking during
power failures or emergencies.

5. Cost Savings
- Reduces installation and maintenance costs by
decreasing wear and tear on mechanical components.
6b. Explain the working design of escalators in a shopping mall. Write the
importance and parameters to be considered while installing escalator.
An escalator is a continuously moving staircase. Each stair has a pair of wheels on each side,
one at the front of the step and one at the rear. The wheels run on two rails. At the top and
bottom of the escalator, the inner rail dips beneath the outer rail, so that the bottom of the stair
flattens, making it easier for riders to get on and off.

Parameters to Consider While Installing Escalators

1. Location and Space Requirements:
Site Assessment: Ensure there is enough space for the installation, including entry and
exit points.
Structural Integrity: Evaluate the building’s structure to support the weight and vibrations
of the escalator.
2. Capacity and Size:
Traffic Flow: Estimate the number of people who will use the escalator to determine the
appropriate size and speed.
Step Width: Choose the step width (600 mm, 800 mm, or 1000 mm) based on expected
traffic.
IMPORTANT DEFINITION
What are the different types of sanitation system?

Define isolated sanitation system.

An isolated sanitation system is a type of sanitation infrastructure that functions independently of
centralized sewage networks or municipal wastewater treatment facilities. These systems are typically
designed for individual homes, small communities, or facilities in remote or rural areas where,
connecting to a public sewage system is impractical or impossible.

Describe devices that help mechanically gain height. What major design parameters that needs to
be considered while designing any one of them.
Devices that help mechanically gain height are commonly used in various fields, including construction,
manufacturing, transportation, and accessibility. These devices include elevators, escalators, lifts,
cranes, and stairlifts.

Flushing Cistern
A flushing cistern is a component of a toilet system designed to store and release water to flush the toilet
bowl, thereby removing waste. It is an essential part of modern sanitation systems and comes in various
designs and mechanisms to suit different types of toilets and user preferences.
Mechanism of Operation
1.Filling:
After a flush, the float mechanism drops, opening the inlet valve to
allow water into the cistern. As the water level rises, the float rises,
gradually closing the inlet valve to stop water flow when the
desired level is reached.
2.Flushing:
When the flush mechanism is activated (by pressing a button,
pulling a chain, etc.), the outlet valve opens, releasing water into
the toilet bowl. The force of the water clears waste from the bowl
and into the sewer system.
3.Refilling:
Once the cistern is empty, the float mechanism again triggers the
inlet valve to refill the cistern, ready for the next flush.
Explain the functions and selection criteria of lifts for multi-storey building.

Building Type
Is it a residential, commercial, or public building? The type of building will determine the elevator's
usage pattern and required capacity.
Traffic Flow and Frequency
The traffic flow and frequency in your building also affect the elevator's selection. A high-rise building
with a high traffic flow would require multiple elevators with fast travel time and advanced features
such as destination control, group control, and speed governors. Buildings with low traffic flow, on the
other hand, can opt for a single elevator with basic features and low capacity.
Space and Shaft Dimensions
Evaluate the available space for the elevator installation. Assess the available space for the elevator
system, including the elevator shaft dimensions, pit depth, and overhead clearance. These
measurements influence the selection of elevator types, such as machine-room-less (MRL) or
machine-room-equipped (MRE), and their specific designs.
Safety Features and Compliance
Ensure that the selected elevator meets all safety regulations and codes applicable to the building’s
location. Essential safety features include emergency lighting, fire-rated doors, intercoms, alarm
systems, and compliance with accessibility guidelines.
Safety Features and Compliance
Ensure that the selected elevator meets all safety regulations and codes applicable to the building’s
location. Essential safety features include emergency lighting, fire-rated doors, intercoms, alarm
systems, and compliance with accessibility guidelines
What are the types of air conditioning system? Also explain the working principle of
any one type with the help of figure.
Air Conditioning (AC) is a technology that increases room comfort by changing the temperature
and humidity of the room environment. This technology is used in various places, including
offices, homes, vehicles, and many other things, to make a favorable environment. The main goal
of AC is to maintain and control the hot air that is present in the environment.
The main 4 types of air conditioning systems -
i. Window air-conditioning system
ii. Split air-conditioning system
iii. Centralized air-conditioning system
iv. Package air-conditioning system
2021 (Spring)
3a. What do you understand by Electrical safety measures? Why it is
important?

Electrical safety measures refer to the practices, procedures, and precautions taken to prevent and
mitigate the risks associated with electrical hazards. Electrical safety is of paramount importance for
several reasons -
1. Electrical Shock Hazard - Exposure to electric current can lead to severe injuries or even fatalities.
Electrical safety measures are crucial in preventing electric shocks, which can cause burns, muscular
contractions, and cardiac arrest.
2. Fire Risk - Faulty electrical installations, overloaded circuits, or damaged wiring can lead to electrical
fires, which can quickly spread and cause significant property damage and endanger lives.
3. Equipment and Property Protection - Proper electrical safety measures help protect electrical
equipment, appliances, and other property from damage caused by electrical faults, surges, or
overloads.
4. Compliance and Regulations - Most jurisdictions have established electrical safety codes and
regulations, such as the National Electrical Code (NEC) in the United States or the Wiring Regulations
in the United Kingdom.

Adhering to these regulations is often mandatory and helps ensure the safety of electrical installations.
Some common electrical safety measures include -
1. Proper Grounding - Ensuring that electrical systems are properly grounded to provide a safe path for
electric current to flow in the event of a fault.
2. Circuit Breakers and Fuses - Using circuit breakers and fuses to protect electrical circuits from
overloads and short circuits, thereby preventing fires and damage.
3. Electrical Insulation - Ensuring that all electrical conductors and equipment are properly insulated to
prevent direct contact with live parts.
4. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) - Requiring the use of PPE, such as insulated gloves, safety
glasses, and non-conductive footwear, when working with electrical systems.
5. Training and Awareness - Providing comprehensive training to employees and users on electrical
safety, hazard recognition, and safe work practices.
6. Regular Inspection and Maintenance - Regularly inspecting and maintaining electrical systems,
equipment, and installations to identify and address any potential issues or defects.
NEC SET
4a. What are the different sources of electrical power generation? Explain any two
renewable sources and why they are important in today's scenario.
Electricity can be generated from a variety of sources, each with its own set of characteristics,
advantages, and challenges. Broadly, these sources can be categorized into renewable and non-
renewable sources.
Major Sources of Electrical Power Generation -
1. Non-renewable Sources
- Fossil Fuels - Coal, natural gas, and oil.
- Nuclear Power - Using nuclear reactions to generate heat, which is then used to produce electricity.

2. Renewable Sources
- Solar Power - Harnessing energy from the sun using photovoltaic cells or solar thermal systems.
- Wind Power - Generating electricity using wind turbines.
- Hydropower - Using the energy of flowing water to generate electricity.
- Geothermal Energy - Utilizing heat from within the Earth.
- Biomass - Producing energy from organic materials.

Two Renewable Sources

1. Solar Power
Solar power captures sunlight using photovoltaic panels or concentrating solar thermal systems. The
energy from the sun is converted directly into electricity or used to heat fluids, which can then produce
steam to drive turbines.
Importance
- Sustainability - Solar energy is abundant and inexhaustible in human terms. Unlike fossil fuels, it does
not deplete natural resources or contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.
- Environmental Benefits - Solar power generates electricity with minimal environmental impact
compared to fossil fuels, reducing air pollution and mitigating climate change.
- Technological Advancements - Improvements in solar panel efficiency and reductions in costs make
solar power increasingly accessible and cost-effective for both residential and commercial
applications.

2. Wind Power
Wind power involves capturing kinetic energy from the wind using wind turbines. The movement of the
wind turns the blades of the turbine, which drives a generator to produce electricity.
Importance
- Clean Energy - Wind power generates electricity without emitting pollutants or greenhouse gases,
making it a crucial component in efforts to combat climate change.
- Renewable and Abundant - Wind is a freely available resource and, when used sustainably, can
provide a significant and reliable source of energy.
- Economic Benefits - The wind industry has created numerous jobs and has the potential to support
local economies, particularly in areas with strong wind resources.
5a. Define 1 lux. State and explain Lambert's Cosine Law of Illumination with
suitable figures.
One lux (Latin for “light”) is the amount of illumination provided when one lumen is evenly
distributed over an area of one square meter. This is also equivalent to the illumination that
would exist on a surface all points of which are one meter from a point source of one
international candle (candela).

Lambert’s Cosine Law

The light received by any surface depends upon the angle made by the normal to the surface, to the light
flux. Lambert's cosine law of illumination explains the relation between the illumination of the surface
and the cosine of the angle.
Statement
The Lambert's cosine law of illumination states that
"The illumination of a surface is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle between the normal to
the surface and the direction of incident light".
That is,
E ∝ cos θ ⋅⋅⋅(1)

Explanation
6a. The HVAC system has been established as one of the essential services in
modern days. Explain how failure to design and maintain an HVAC system may lead
to Sick Building Syndrome.
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) is a condition where occupants of a building experience acute health
effects and discomfort that seem to be linked to the time spent in that building, though no specific
illness or cause can be identified. An improperly designed or maintained HVAC (Heating, Ventilation,
and Air Conditioning) system can significantly contribute to SBS. Here’s how -
1. Inadequate Ventilation
a. Poor Air Exchange
- Insufficient ventilation can lead to the buildup of indoor pollutants such as volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and other contaminants. Elevated levels of these pollutants can cause
respiratory issues, headaches, and general discomfort.
b. Stale Air
- If the HVAC system does not effectively circulate or refresh the air, it can become stale and oxygen-
depleted and reduced oxygen levels can lead to fatigue, dizziness, and decreased cognitive function.
2. Temperature and Humidity Control Issues
a. Extreme Temperatures
- Inconsistent or extreme temperatures, whether too hot or too cold, can make indoor environments
uncomfortable.
b. Poor Humidity Control
- Inadequate humidity control can result in either excessively dry or overly humid conditions. Low
humidity can cause dry skin, respiratory irritation, and increased susceptibility to infections. High
humidity can lead to mold growth, which can trigger allergies and asthma.
3. Contaminant and Pollutant Control Failures
a. Air Filtration Issues
- Ineffective or dirty air filters can allow dust, pollen, mold spores, and other particulates to circulate.
These contaminants can aggravate allergies, asthma, and other respiratory conditions.
b. Mold and Mildew Growth
- Poor ventilation and humidity control can create an environment conducive to mold and mildew
growth. Mold and mildew release spores that can cause respiratory issues, allergic reactions, and other
health problems.
4. Mechanical Failures and Maintenance Issues
- HVAC systems that are not regularly maintained or have mechanical failures can result in inconsistent
airflow, temperature fluctuations, and system breakdowns.
5. Inadequate Ventilation for Specific Needs
- Certain spaces, such as kitchens, bathrooms, and laboratories, may require specialized ventilation
that is not adequately provided. Failure to address these specific needs can result in the
accumulation of pollutants and unpleasant conditions.
Prevention
- Perform routine maintenance, including filter replacement, system cleaning, and inspections to keep
the HVAC system functioning efficiently.
- Implement measures to monitor and improve indoor air quality, such as using air purifiers,
maintaining optimal humidity levels, and ensuring proper ventilation.
- Identify and address any specific issues related to air quality, temperature control, or humidity as
they arise.
6b. Differentiate between traction elevator and hydraulic elevators. In elevator placement
discuss three parameters which an architect must focus during elevator design.
Traction (Machine) Elevators S.N. Hydraulic Elevators

Lifted by ropes, which pass over a wheel 1. Supported by a piston at the bottom of the
attached to an electric motor above the elevator that pushes the elevator up as an
elevator shaft. electric motor forces oil or another hydraulic
fluid into the piston.
Used for mid and high-rise applications and 2. Used for low-rise applications of 2-8 stories.
have much higher travel speed.
Principle - see - saw 3. Principle - Pascal's pressure principle
Components - control system, sheave, 4. Components - tank, motor, valve, actuator
motor, counterweight, guiding rail.

The machine room is located at the upper 5. The machine room is located at the lowest level
most level, i.e., on the terrace. adjacent to the elevator shaft.

When designing and placing elevators in a building, architects must consider several critical parameters
to ensure functionality, safety, and efficiency -

1. Building Usage and Traffic Analysis

i. Purpose - The elevator design should align with the building’s purpose (e.g., residential,
commercial, or mixed-use) and expected traffic patterns.
ii. Traffic Flow - Conduct a traffic analysis to estimate peak usage times and volume. This
helps determine the number and size of elevators required to handle the expected traffic
without excessive wait times.
iii. Accessibility - Ensure the elevator design accommodates all users, including those with
disabilities, by meeting accessibility standards and regulations.
2. Space and Layout Constraints
i. Shaft Location - The placement of the elevator shaft should optimize the use of building
space while ensuring ease of access. Considerations include the impact on adjacent
rooms, structural support, and integration with other building systems.
ii. Machine Room Space - For traction elevators, allocate space for the machine room at the
top of the shaft. For hydraulic elevators, ensure space for the hydraulic pump and reservoir
at the base of the shaft.
iii. Integration - The elevator should be seamlessly integrated into the building’s layout, with
clear access points and minimal disruption to other design elements.
3. Compliance with Codes and Standards
i. Building Codes - Adhere to local building codes and regulations regarding elevator design,
including safety, capacity, and installation requirements.
ii. Fire Safety - Consider fire safety regulations, including emergency evacuation procedures
and fire-rated elevator shafts.
7. Write short notes on -
a. Gully Trap
A gully trap is a drainpipe extension in the shape of a basin with a seal that captures harmful
fumes and prevents the gases from escaping, allowing waste water to enter the sewage system
safely. It features a U-shaped or S-shaped bend that holds water, creating a barrier against
gases.
Components
i. Trap Chamber - The part of the gully trap where the
water seal is maintained.
ii. Grating or Cover - Often, a gully trap will have a grate or
cover to prevent debris from entering the trap and
causing blockages.
iii. Cleaning Access - Many gully traps have a cleaning
access point or a removable cover for maintenance and
clearing blockages

Functions
i. Preventing Odors - The primary purpose of a gully trap is to create a water seal that prevents
sewer gases and odors from escaping into the building.
ii. Blocking Pests - The water seal also acts as a barrier to prevent pests, such as insects and
rodents, from entering the plumbing system and the building

c. Stack effect and draft effect

Stack Effect - The stack effect, also known as the chimney effect, is the movement of air into
and out of buildings due to temperature differences between the interior and exterior.
Mechanism - Warm air inside a building rises and exits through openings at the top (like
windows or vents) due to its lower density. Cooler, denser air then enters through lower openings
to replace the rising warm air.
Impact - This can affect building ventilation, indoor air quality, and energy efficiency. In winter, it
can lead to heat loss, while in summer, it can enhance natural ventilation.

Draft Effect - The draft effect refers to the movement of air through a building caused by
differences in air pressure, often due to wind or mechanical ventilation systems.
Mechanism - Wind blowing against a building creates pressure differences on different sides,
causing air to flow through openings and corridors. Mechanical systems like HVAC can also
induce drafts.
Impact - This can lead to uncomfortable drafts, increased energy consumption, and potential
issues with temperature control. It affects indoor comfort and may contribute to heat loss or
gain.