GROUP 14

BUILDING STONES

- Stones are naturally occurring compact, solid and massive material that make the crust of
the earth.
- The rocks occur in great variety. The rocks posses suitable properties often find use in
building stones. It follows that all building stones are rocks in nature, all rocks may not
be useful as building stones.

Stones have been used in all type of construction since time immemorial.
Stone, timber and clay had been the most commonly construction used material right
from the beginning of the civilization till the advent of Portland cement and hence
concrete in the early nineteenth century.

Classification of Stones
• The building stones are classified in three ways: Geologically, Chemically and
Structurally.

A) Geological Classification:
• This classification is based on mode of formation of the rock from which building stones are
obtained. Three main group recognized are:
• I) Igneous Rocks
• II) Sedimentary Rocks
• III) Metamorphic Rocks

Igneous Rocks (Greek word ignis= fire)

• All those rocks of the earth that have been formed by the natural process of cooling and
crystallization from originally hot and molten magma are grouped as Igneous Rocks. They are
the most abundant rocks in the crust when considered depth wise.
• In fact the igneous rocks are further distinguished by geologists into three sub classes on the
basis of their depth of formation.
Types:
(a) The Plutonic Rocks
• These are formed at greater depth below the surface. They are exposed on the surface by
erosion of the overlying secondary rocks with passage of time. They are coarsely crystallized. i.e.
the component of crystals can be easily seen without the help of magnifying glasses. Granites,
Syenites and gabbros are typically igneous plutonic rocks
(b) The Volcanic Rocks
• These are formed on the surface of the earth from lava coming out of numerous volcanoes that
erupt from time to time. Basalt and trap rocks are very common examples; the constituents
minerals are so small that they can be seen only after magnifying under microscope.
Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentary Rocks (sediment=particle)
They are the most widespread rocks found covering a great part of the surface of earth. The
Sedimentary rock are formed from any type of preexisting rocks by a simple process of
breakdown into smaller particles under the influence of natural agencies like wind, water and ice
and atmospheric gases.
Types:
(a) Clastic Rocks
• These are sedimentary rocks formed by deposition and consolidation of disintegrated sediments
and fragments from the previous rocks in suitable river basins, lake and the sea basins etc. They
are most widespread and include such types as sandstones, hales, breccias and conglomerates.
Sandstones are made mostly of silica grains fused together or thoroughly compacted under
natural environment. They form very good type of building stone.
(b) Chemically formed Rocks
Many sedimentary rocks are precipitated from river, lake and especially from seawater by
evaporation etc.
(c) Organic formed Sedimentary Rocks
As we know that more than 70% of the surface of earth is covered with water in the form of sea
and oceans.

Metamorphic Rocks
(meta= Change; morph form) These are originally either igneous or sedimentary rocks. The
process for their change under the influence of increased temperature, pressure, and chemical
environment is called metamorphism. When an existing rock gets subjected to increased
temperature or changed stresses and chemically active fluids it undergoes a slow but definite
change in its original structure and chemical composition. The new rock so formed is called
metamorphic rock.
The nature and composition of the original rocks, Some very common metamorphic rocks are
Marble, Quartzite, Gneiss, Slate and Schist; The first three rocks are very good building stones in
many cases.

Chemical Classification
• On the basis of dominant chemical composition, following three main groups of rocks are
commonly recognized:
I.) Siliceous Rock
• These rock have SILICA (SiO₂) as the predominant component, that is more than 50% of the
bulk composition of the rock.
• These include variety of quartzites. Naturally they are classed among the strongest type of
building stones. Some other rocks like granites, sandstones and gneisses are also made up of
Silica in combined form.
2) Calcareous Rocks.
• In these rocks, the dominant component is a carbonate,generally of calcium but often with
magnesium. Most commonly they belong to sedimentary and metamorphic group of rocks.
Limestone, dolomite and marbles are entirely carbonate rocks and all form good building stone.
3) Argillaceous Rocks.
• They are mostly sedimentary rocks having clay (hydrous alumino silicates of K, Na, Ca, Mg.
etc.) as a dominant constituent. They are invariably soft and untrustworthy as building stone and
untrustworthy as building stones. Shales, Slates, and Schists are examples.
Structural Classification
• Broadly speaking, in apparent structures, the rock (Stones) may either be found in the form of
undifferentiated masses or they occur in very well defined layers or sheets. A third category is
foliated rocks.

1) The Massive or Unstratified Rocks.

• These rocks occur in huge masses without showing any layered structure in them. Igneous and
many metamorphic rocks and some sedimentary rocks may be seen occurring as big masses.
Granite and Quartzite often occur in massive form.
2) The Stratified Rocks.
• Most sedimentary rocks occur in distinct layers of same and different color and composition.
Their different layers are also called beds and are separated by planes of weaknesses called
bedding planes
3) Foliated Rocks
• Very often a third group of rock is distinguished as foliated rocks in which there is profuse
development of well defined band of different composition. This is seen as schists and gneisses.
The foliated rocks do not yield building stone of good quality.

QUARRYING OF STONES
• Quarrying is different than mining used for extraction of ores for metal in that in mining we go
deep below the surface, the top surface is left in tact, and the ores are extracted from under the
earth. In quarrying, however, the process of extraction starts from the surface.

Selection of Quarrying Site

Engineers and Contractors have to keep in mind following factors while deciding about the
location of quarry site
(i) Availability of Sound Rock.
• A quarry can be opened up where a sound rock that can yield good quality of building stones
existing in sufficiently larger area. These is essential because quarrying operation require quite
heavy initial investment in men and machinery and these have to be economically viable.
(ii) Distance of Area of Construction:
• Quarrying is a common operation. The quarrying site must necessarily be close to a main road
so that stones extracted from it can be transported to any outside place at economic rate.
(iii) Availability of Water and dumping space
• In quarrying operations, large number of equipments, men and machines are often required.
Sufficient safe distance from quarrying must be available. Often lot of water is also required for
the workers and even during cutting operations when machines are to be used. This must be
available locally. Dumping space is required for storing the broken stone and also for dumping
useless rock fragments obtained during quarrying. Further, adequate drainage outlet for
removing any underground or surface waters immediately after rain must be provided at the
quarry.

Preparatory Steps
• Once a site for quarrying of Stone is decided. Following predatory steps becomes necessary for
starting operations
• i) Selection of method of Quarrying
• Quarrying can be done manually or with the help of machines. Mechanized quarrying is the
advanced and preferred method of the quarry, the nature of the rock and the commercial demand.
• (ii) Preparation of a layout
• A scheme for operation process or layout of the quarry has to be prepared after selecting
method of quarrying. This should include the face of attack, the progression of attack and various
stages in which the block of rocks are removed.
• (iii) Removal of overburden
• The upper surface of natural bedrock is quite often covered with some thickness of soil or
weathered rock called overburden. Such overburden as well as loosely held rock pieces have to
be removed well before the start of quarrying operations.

Methods of Quarrying
A. Quarrying Without Blasting
• In this methods, skilled persons remove blocks of rocks from the places of occurrence. They
may use hand tools or even light channeling machines called channellizers. No explosive
material is used for breaking the stones.
B) Quarrying by blasting
This method involves use of explosives for breaking stones from very hard rock like quartzite
and sandstones, basalts, traps, and non-ornamental granites. It has been observed that quarrying
of these types of hard rock becomes very laborious and costly by other methods.
• The basic principle employed in this method is to explode a small quantity of an explosive at a
calculated depth within the body of the rock.

Dressing of Stones
. Stones as obtained from quarries are very rough and irregular in shape. Besides, they may be
too bulky to be used in construction,
Method of dressing of stones
Dressing of stones can be done both manually or mechanically.
Manually, Skilled workers can work wonders on suitable types of stones with chisels, hammers
and abrasives. Not only they can give excellent finish and polish stones but also may do carving
and engraving that can withstand centuries.
Mechanically, special saw fitted machines can cut slabs and any other shape from rough rocks.
These are called rock cutters. The grinding and polishing machines are fitted with wheels or
discs with abrasives capable enough to give polish and fine finish to any desired degree even on
the hardest of stones.

SELECTION OF STONES FOR CONSTRUCTION

Three factors are generally considered by an engineer while deciding use of stone in construction
jobs:
First
The type of building and the situation where stone is to be used such as:
Residential building or a public building, such as for school, department office, community
centre etc.
Second:
The precise location in the building where the stone shall give a preferential benefit in terms of
cost, appearance, and durability such as in foundations, superstructures, arches, columns, beams,
plinths, or flooring, sills and cantilever.
Third
• Cost of construction with stones. This will depend on factors of availability of stone, in nearby
area, their extraction, transportation and dressing before putting them in use. Sometimes a
desired quantity of stone may not be available locally. It may have to be imported from