Stones

• The stones which are suitable for the construction of the structures such as
retaining walls, abutments, dams, barrages, roads etc are known as building
stones. Building stones should possess enough strength and durability.
Stones have been considered as one of the popular building material from
the olden days due to their availability in abundance from the natural rocks.

• COMMON USES OF BUILDING STONE: It is used in foundations of

buildings, It is used in construction of dams, barrages, etc, In its crushed
(powdered form) it is used as artificial sand, It is used as raw material for
manufacturing of cement, In its broken form it is used as material for
construction of road and railway tracks, It is used as decorative material in
buildings, It is also used as parts of buildings such as lintels and arches, etc,
It is also used as thin slabs for building roofing, It is also used for
ornamental works in buildings, In its broken form it is in the manufacturing
of concrete,
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES:
• Hardness: Hardness denotes several qualities of stones such as resistance to cutting
and resistance to abrasion ( rub with each other). Specially stones are used in case
of roads and railway tracks. To check the hardness of stones various tests are
conducted in the laboratories. The more important tests to check the hardness is
Loss Angles Abrasion test. It depends upon the nature of its constituent minerals.

• Durability: Durability is the power of stone to resist atmospheric and other

external effects. It depends upon: Chemical composition, Physical structure,
Resistance to weathering effects, Place where it is used Stone which contain
silicates will be durable than those stone which contain calcareous substances.

• Porosity and Absorption: Stone can hold water in two ways Either through
porosity or absorption For building purposes, the better stones are those which are
less porous because they will absorb less moisture. Porous stones damaged easily.

• Decomposition: Gases and acids in rain water dissolve some constituents of stone
and cause the stone decay.

• Disintegration: In cold countries water freezes and expands and thus disintegrates
the stones.
• Reliability: When exposed to fire stone should be reliable (good in quality).

• Weight: This is an important characteristic of stone. It depends upon the type of

structure of stone in which we shall use. E.g. we shall use heavy stones in the
construction of the dams, bridges, etc.

• Strength: It is power of stone to sustain pressure or resistance to crushing force. Average

crushing strength of stone is 3 tons per square inch.

• Appearance and color: Highly colorful stones are preferred for architectural purpose
but those are soft and thus less durable. Therefore, lighter stones are preferred than to
darker ones.

• Physical Strength: Crystalline structures are more durable than non-crystalline structure
stone.

• Seasoning Qualities: A good building stone should have good seasoning qualities. All
the stones contain some moisture which is known as quarry sap stones. The period 3-6
months are enough for seasoning.

• Fire resistance: A good building stone should be fire resistant. Some stones such as
basalt and trap resist fire very well but some varieties of igneous and metamorphic
stones are very weak against fire.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS (STONES) OR VARIETIES OF
STONES:
• There are three main classes of rocks.

• (1) CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION: Chemically stones are

stones are classified into three groups.
– (i) Argillaceous Rocks: Argillaceous or clay stones are those stones which
contain (alumina Al2O3) (clay) as principal constituent. These stones are
less durable stones. All clay stones belong to this group. The examples of
argillaceous rocks are Slate, Laterite, etc.
– (ii) Silicious Rocks: The stones which contain (Silica SiO2) as principal
constituent are called silicious rocks. These stones are durable stones. The
examples of silicious rocks are granite, Quartzite and Sand stone etc.
– (ii) Calcareous Rocks: The stones which contain calcareous material
(CaCO3) as principal constituent are called calcareous rocks. They also
contain some proportion of siliceous and clay matter. The examples of
calcareous rocks are marble stone and lime stone, etc.
• (2) PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION: Physically rocks are
classified as:

– (i) Stratified Rocks: The rocks which are split into thin slabs or layers easily are
called stratified rocks. All sedimentary rocks are essentially stratified and
metamorphic rocks may be either stratified or un-stratified depending upon its
parent rock. The examples of stratified rocks are Slate, Sand stone and Lime
stone.

– (ii) Un-stratified Rocks: • These rocks do not show sign of stratification and
can not be easily split into thin slabs or layers are called un-stratified rocks. All
igneous rocks are essentially un-stratified and metamorphic rocks may be either
stratified or un-stratified. The examples of un-stratified rocks are Granite,
Basalt and Lime Trap.
• (3) GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION: • Geologically stones
are stones are classified into three groups.

– (i) Igneous or Primary Rocks: These are primary rocks which are
formed from molten magma. They represent different structural
features depending upon the condition of solidification and
composition. Generally igneous rocks are strong and durable.

– (ii) Sedimentary or Secondary Rocks: These are secondary rocks and

are formed by the denudation and deposition of previously existing
rocks due to weathering actions. Water (rain) is the most powerful and
principal weathering agent. The other destructive agents are frost,
winds and chemical actions. The destructive agents break up the
surface of earth which gets further broken up when carried down by
rains and rivers.

– (iii) Metamorphic or Tertiary Rocks: Rocks which are formed due to

metamorphic action of pressure or internal heat or by both (or)
alteration of original structure due to heat and excessive pressure) are
called Metamorphic Rocks. Examples: Marble etc.
 EXAMINATION AND TESTING OF STONES
• It is very important to examine the stone before its selection for any
particular type of engineering structure. For this purpose various types of
tests are to be conducted to find out the suitability of stone for engineering
structure. There are so many tests but some important among them are as
follows.
• (1) Crushing test: For this test 04 cubic cm finely dressed different
samples of stones are used. Their type is made flat and horizontal and
covered with plaster of Paris. They are tested in a compression testing
machine. The load must be applied axially and the changes in the blocks at
the corresponding load are recorded. The blocks or samples which bear
more loads are to be selected.
• (2) Crystallization or weathering test: For this test 04 cubic cm different
samples of stones are first weighed and then immersed in a 14 % solution
of sodium sulphate (NA2SO4) at room temperature for two hours and dried
at 1000 C . They are again weighed. This process of weighing, immersing
in salt solution, drying and re-weighing is repeated for 10 to 15 times. A
stone which is not much affected by salt solution is supposed to have very
good weathering properties.
• (3) Porosity and Absorption test: To ascertain the relative qualities of
different stones, they are immersed in water for 24 hours and the amount of
water absorbed by each specimen is noted. Greater absorption of water by
the stone means that it is porous and can not resist weathering forces well.
The test specimen which absorbs the smallest amount of water is the best.

• (4) Attrition test: This is the test to check the wear and tear of stone. To
conduct this test different angular pieces of stones are weighed and charged
into a cylindrical drum along with the iron blocks provided. The drum is
then rotated at the rate of 30 to 33 rpm. About 100 to 150 revolutions are
made and the % age of wear is noted. The stone which wears less is
considered to be the best.

• (5) Acid test: This is the best test to find out the action of acids on the
stone. For this test about 50 to 100 grams sample of stone is immersed in a
solution of 1 % HCl or H2SO4 for about a week. The sample being agitated
(pressed, disturbed) at intervals. If the edges of stone are retained and there
is no deposition of any loose particles on the surface, it indicates that the
stone is good other wise weak and bad.
• (6) Smith’s test: This test is carried out to find out whether the specimens possess
crystalline structure. Small stone chips are kept for about half an hour in a glass of
water filled to one third. The glass containing the specimens and water is moved
quickly by giving it a circular motion with the hand. If the specimen gives out
earthy matter and water gets milky appearance, it shows that the stone particles are
not properly cemented together.

• (7) Hardness test: This test is conducted to find out the resistance of stone to
abrasion. The sample piece of stone is cleaned and rubbed by piece of rubbing
material/paper. The rubbed face of the stone is examined through a microscope. If
marks of rubbing are visible, it shows that the stone is soft and it can not be used for
roads, pavements, etc.

• (8) Fire test: For very important buildings, fire resistance of stone is also
examined. For this test a small hut or a wall panel of stone is built. One side of it is
subjected to 9500 C and the behavior of the stone under fire is studied. If the cracks
developed are deep. Then it should not be used for important buildings.

• (9) Microscopic test: This is a geological test in which a thin slice of the sample is
examined through the microscopic to determine the following physical properties of
stone. The texture of the stone. The nature of the building materials/stones. The
size, shape and nature of the individual grains or crystals. The kind and nature of
the mineral present. The presence of pores, if any.
 DETERIORATION OF STONES
• Deterioration of stone is the process of their breaking or their
decay. Atmospheric agencies such as: rain, temperature, wind,
frost, and living organisms, etc. are responsible for their
deterioration and these agencies bring about physical and
chemical changes in the stones and disintegrate them. So, the
stones which can resist the effect of all these agencies are said
to be durable. Some preservative materials which are used to
preserve the stones from deterioration are: coal tar, linseed oil,
barium hydrate solution, alum soap solution (mixture of alum
and soft soap). By applying some of above preservative
materials, stones can be preserved from the decaying.
 QUARRYING OF STONES
• Stones are extracted from natural rocks in different sizes. The various methods
which are involved in the extraction of stones from rock beds are collectively
termed as “Quarrying of Stones”. Open part of the natural rock from which useful
material is obtained is known as quarry.

• Methods of quarrying: • It is depending upon the rock and purpose for which it is
to be used. • Commonly two methods are used for quarrying.
• (1) Quarrying by digging • (2) Quarrying by blasting

(1) Quarrying by digging: • This is done by three methods.

–
• (a) By driving steel wedges into fissures: • Fissures, cracks, planes of
cleavages are all weak points in the rock and by taking the advantage of
these weak points, steel wedges are driven in these natural fissures or
cracks, so that rock splits easily.

• (b) By drilling artificial line of holes: • Some times line of holes (in rows)
is drilled with the help of chisel and hammer. Thus, the solidity of rock
mark is divided into small portions and artificial fissures are made. Steel
wedges are driven in these artificially made fissures. Then all the wedges
are hammered simultaneously and consequently the rock cracks along the
face of holes.
• (c) By swelling hard wooden pegs: Some times hard wooden pegs
are driven in either natural or artificially made fissures and are kept
soaked with water. And in this way rock is splitted.
• (d) Quarrying by blasting: • When the rock is very hard and un-
fissured then quarrying is done by blasting. Blasting is the process
of loosening the hard and closely packed material with the help of
explosive materials. Various explosives which are used for blasting
purposes are: • Gun powder or black powder • Dynamite • Cordite
Detonator • Fuses
• But mostly two explosives are used which are gun powder and
dynamite. Where gun powder is the mixture of potassium nitrate,
charcoal and sulphur and dynamite is the mixture of nitroglycerine.
There are four main operations are involved in blasting. •Boring
hole in the rock •Charging with the explosives •Tamping •Firing.
 DRESSING OF STONES
• Dressing of stones is a process in which their surfaces are prepared to
a form, fit to be used for any constructional purpose. Dressing is
according to the type of work and demand.
• Purpose of Dressing: To give them good looking. • To provide
horizontal and vertical joints in the masonry. • To make them fit, to be
used for particular
• Methods of Dressing
• Rough dressing (Dressing at quarry site ) or Fair dressing (Dressing at
construction site)
• (1) ROUGH DRESSING OR DRESSING AT QUARRY SITE:
– There are three main methods of rough dressing, which are a sunder: •
– (i) Scabbling: In scabbling only irregular angels are taken off with a scabbling
hammer and therefore that dressing is called scabbling.
– (ii) Hammer Dressing
– (iii) Self faced, quarry faced (OR) Rock faced Dressing: In this type
of dressing, stone are only splitted into either as face stones or as corner
stones and nothing special is done.
• (2) FAIR DRESSING OR DRESSING AT BUILDING SITE: There are
four main methods of Fair dressing, which are as under:
– (i) Chiseled Dressing: About one inch width on all the four sides of the
exposed surfaces of the stones is chiseled to give them a better
appearance. This work is done with the help of chisel made of cast iron.
– (ii) Fine Tooling : In this type of dressing most of the projections of the
stones are removed and a fairly smooth surface is gained. Due to this
the appearance of the stone improves.
– (iii) Rough Tooling : In this type of dressing a rough tooled surface that
has a series of bends are made of the stone. The bends are more or less
parallel to tool marks make all over the surface.
– (iv) Punched Dressing : This type of dressing is an extension of rough
tool dressing. In this type of dressing a rough tooled surface is further
dressed with the series of parallel ridges. The chisel marks are visible
on the face.
– (v) Closed Picked Dressing : In this type of dressing of stone a punched
stone is further dressed to obtain a finer surface.