electronics systems and technologies

MICROWAVE AND
SATELLITE
COMMUNICATIONS
Adrian Miguel S. Umengan, ECE, ECT
Part-time Instructor I
Electronics Engineering Department
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 1
Which of the following is a microwave frequency?
A. 1.7 MHz
B. 750 MHz
C. 0.98 GHz
D. 22 GHz
 electronics systems and technologies
IEEE MICROWAVE FRQUENCY SPECTRUM DESIGNATION
BAND FREQUENCY RANGE DESIGNATION
L 1-2 long haul (long wavelength)
S 2-4 short haul (short wavelength)
C 4-8 compromise (commercial)
X 8-12 cross
Ku 12-18 Kurz under
K 18-27 Kurz
Ka 27-40 Kurz above
V 40-75
W 75-110
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 2
A waveguide has a cut-off frequency of 17 GHz. Which of the
following signals will not pass thru the waveguide?
A. 15 GHz
B. 18 GHz
C. 22 GHz
D. 255 GHz
 electronics systems and technologies
WAVEGUIDE
• It is a hollow metal tube designed to carry microwave energy from one
place to another, and it is usually made from copper, aluminum or brass
extruded to long rectangular or circular pipes.
• It acts like a high-pass filter, passing all frequencies above its cut of
frequency and rejecting those below it.
• It carries microwave signal which is made up of electric (E) and magnetic
(H) fields that bounce off its walls as they propagate along its length.
 electronics systems and technologies
TYPES OF WAVEGUIDE
Waveguides are classified based on their aperture (opening) shape, these can
be rectangular, circular, or elliptical.
 electronics systems and technologies
TWO TYPES OF MODE
• Single-Mode - it is when the electrical energy propagate in a straight line. If
a train of pulses is sent down through a waveguide in a single mode
operation, the output pulse will be the approximately the same with the input
pulse (lower losses).
• Multimode - it is when the electrical energy propagates in different modes. If
a train of pulses is sent down though a waveguide in a multimode operation,
it introduces a loss known as multimodal dispersion or pulse spreading,
which means that there is no fidelity in the signal that is sent (output is
different from the input).
 electronics systems and technologies
MODE DESIGNATIONS

𝑇𝐸𝑚𝑛 &𝑇𝑀𝑚𝑛

Where:
𝜆
m = number of along "a" dimension
2
𝜆
n = number of along "b" dimension
2
a = longer dimension of a waveguide cross section
b = shorter dimension of a waveguide cross section
 electronics systems and technologies
DOMINANT MODE
It is the ideal mode, specifically a single mode of propagation that is achieved
by using only the mode with the lowest cut-off frequency (highest cut-off
wavelength); moreover, it has no multimodal dispersion or pulse spreading
loss.

DOMINANT MODE FOR RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDES

The dominant mode for rectangular waveguide is 𝑻𝑬𝟏𝟎 or 𝑻𝑴𝟏𝟏 .
 electronics systems and technologies
CUT OFF FREQUENCY FOR RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDES
• It is the lowest frequency that is used to mark the propagation of a signal in
waveguide.
• It is the lowest frequency that will propagate through a waveguide while
operating in a perpendicular mode.
• It depends upon the physical size of a waveguide.
 electronics systems and technologies
WAVEGUIDE TOP VIEW

HIGH FREQUENCY

MEDIUM FREQUENCY

LOW FREQUENCY

CUT OFF FREQUENCY

 electronics systems and technologies
DOMINANT MODE NON DOMINANT MODE Where:
𝑓𝑐𝑜 = cut-off frequency, Hz
𝑐 𝑐 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
c = speed of light (3𝑥108 m/s)
𝑓𝑐𝑜 = 𝑓𝑐𝑜 = +
2𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑏 a = longer dimension of the waveguide cross
section, m

CUT OFF WAVELENGTH

b = shorter dimension of the waveguide cross
section, m
FOR RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDES 𝜆
m = number of along "a" dimension
2
𝜆
n = number of along "b" dimension
𝜆𝑐𝑜 = 2𝑎 2
𝜆𝑐𝑜 = cut-off wavelength, m
a= longer dimension of the waveguide cross
section, m
 electronics systems and technologies
DOMINANT MODE FOR CIRCULAR WAVE GUIDES
The dominant mode for circular waveguide is 𝑻𝑬𝟏𝟏 or 𝑻𝑴𝟎𝟏 .

Cut off Wavelength for Circular Waveguides

2𝜋𝑟
𝜆𝑐𝑜 =
𝜌𝑚𝑛
 electronics systems and technologies
GROUP VELOCITY
It is the actual (true) velocity at which signals travels down the guide (i.e., the
velocity of the waves as they propagate through the waveguide), and it is always
less than the speed of light in vacuum.

2 2
𝑓𝑐𝑜 𝜆
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑐 1 − 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑐 1 −
𝑓 2𝑎

Where:
𝑣𝑔 = group velocity, m/s a = waveguide longer dimension, m
λ = wavelength, m c = speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)
𝑓𝑐𝑜 = waveguide cut-off frequency, Hz
f = operating frequency, Hz
 electronics systems and technologies
PHASE VELOCITY
It is the apparent velocity at which the wave appears to move along the wall of
the guide based on the way the phase angle varies along the walls (i.e., the
velocity with which the wave changes phase), and it is always greater than the
speed of light in vacuum.
𝑐 𝑐
𝑣𝑝ℎ = 𝑣𝑝ℎ =
𝑓𝑐𝑜 2 𝜆 2
1− 1−
𝑓 2𝑎
Where: f = operating frequency, Hz
𝑣𝑝ℎ = phase velocity, m/s a = waveguide longer dimension, m
λ = wavelength, m c = speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)
𝑓𝑐𝑜 = waveguide cut-off frequency, Hz
 electronics systems and technologies
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GROUP AND PHASE VELOCITY

𝑣𝑔 ∗ 𝑣𝑝ℎ = 𝑐 2

Where:
𝑣𝑔 = group velocity, m/s
𝑣𝑝ℎ = phase velocity, m/s
c = speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)
 electronics systems and technologies
GUIDE WAVELENGTH
It is the wavelength of the traveling wave which propagates down the
waveguide.
𝑣𝑝ℎ
𝜆𝑔 =
𝑓

Where:
𝑣𝑝ℎ = phase velocity, m/s
𝜆𝑔 = guide wavelength, m
f = operating frequency, Hz
 electronics systems and technologies
WAVEGUIDE IMPEDANCE
The characteristic impedance of a waveguide is always greater than the
characteristic impedance of free space.

377 377
𝑍𝑜 𝑤𝑔 = 𝑍𝑜 𝑤𝑔 =
2 2
𝑓 𝜆
1 − 𝑐𝑜 1−
𝑓 2𝑎

Where:
𝑍𝑜 𝑤𝑔 = waveguide characteristic impedance, Ω a = waveguide longer dimension, m
λ = wavelength, m c = speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)
𝑓𝑐𝑜 = waveguide cut-off frequency, Hz
f = operating frequency, Hz
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 3
A microwave band of 18 to 27 GHz is considered as the ______ band.
A. C
B. X
C. Q
D. K
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 4
The smallest free space wavelength that is just unable to propagate in
the waveguide under given conditions.
A. Guide
B. Phase
C. Cut-off
D. Group
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 5
What microwave component can sample part of the power traveling
thru the waveguide?
A. Directional coupler
B. Magic tee
C. Circulator
D. Isolator
 electronics systems and technologies
DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
• It is a junction consisting of two
waveguides coupled together in such
a manner that a traveling wave in either
guide will induced a traveling wave in
the same direction in the other guide.
• It is a device that samples part of the
power traveling through the main
guide.
• Its number of holes and size of
opening determines the amount of
power going into its auxiliary arm.
 electronics systems and technologies
ISOLATOR
It is a two-port microwave device which allows RF energy to pass through in
one direction with very little loss but absorbs RF power in the other direction
(i.e., it has low loss in one direction and high loss in the other).
 electronics systems and technologies
CIRCULATOR
• It is a multiport microwave coupling device having a number of terminals
so arranged that energy entering one terminal is transmitted to the next
adjacent terminal in a particular direction.
• It is used to route outgoing and incoming signal between the antenna,
transmitter, and receiver.
 electronics systems and technologies
WAVEGUIDE BENDS
These are used when changes in direction is required, but the size, shape and
the material of a waveguide must be constant.
 electronics systems and technologies
WAVEGUIDE TEES
These are used when it is required to separate or combine two or more
signals or for simpler interconnections.
 electronics systems and technologies
WAVEGUIDE TWISTS
• These are used if change in polarization is needed (electromagnetic fields
must be rotated so that they are in proper phase to match the phase of the
load).
• The length of the twist is twice the wavelength (𝟐𝝀).
 electronics systems and technologies
WAVEGUIDE TAPERS
• A circular-to-rectangular taper is used to couple a circular waveguide to a
rectangular waveguide.
• The taper section is made gradual to reduce reflections.
 electronics systems and technologies
WAVEGUIDE TERMINATIONS
In many cases, it is necessary to terminate the end of an unused port of a
waveguide; one approach to termination is to insert a pyramid-shaped
metallic section in the end of the line; it is also possible simply to fill the end of
the line with a powdered graphite resistive material; also, termination can be
accomplished by using a resistive material shaped as a triangle or wedge at
the end of a closed line.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 6
To install an antenna with an LOS transmission at a distance of 75
miles, determine the height of a receiving antenna if the transmitting
antenna is 250 ft.
A. 1385 ft
B. 600 ft
C. 400 ft
D. 255 ft
 electronics systems and technologies
TERRESTRIAL MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS
It uses microwave frequencies to transmit information in line-of-sight (means
two antennas should see each other) or space wave propagation within the
Earth's atmosphere.

REQUIREMENTS FOR TERRESTRIAL MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS

• The signal follow a straight line or line-of-sight path.
• The signal is affected by FSL (free space attenuation) and FM
(precipitation).
 electronics systems and technologies
MICROWAVE RADIOS
These propagate signals through Earth's atmosphere between transmitters
and receivers often located on top of a tower spaced about 15 miles to 30
miles apart.
 electronics systems and technologies
ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE RADIO
• Radio systems do not require a right-of way acquisition between stations.
• Each station requires the purchase or lease of only a small area of land.
• Because of their high operating frequencies, microwave radio systems can
carry large quantities of information.
• High frequencies mean short wavelengths, which require smaller antennas.
• Radio signals are more easily propagated around physical obstacles such
as water and high mountains.
 electronics systems and technologies
ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE RADIO
• Fewer repeaters are necessary for amplification.
• Distances between switching centers are less.
• Underground facilities are minimized.
• Minimum delays are introduced.
• Minimal crosstalk exists between voice channels.
• Increased reliability and less maintenance are important factors.
 electronics systems and technologies
DISADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE RADIO
• It is more difficult to analyze and design circuits at microwave frequencies.
• Measuring techniques are more difficult to perfect and implement at
microwave frequencies.
• It is difficult to implement conventional circuit components at microwave
frequencies.
• Transient time is more critical at microwave frequencies.
• It is often necessary to use specialized components for microwave
frequencies.
• Microwave frequencies propagate in a straight line, which limits their use to
line-of-sight applications.
 electronics systems and technologies
K FACTOR
• It is the equivalent Earth radius factor, and it defines the degree and
direction of bending.
• It is the ratio of the effective Earth's radius and the true Earth's radius.

𝑅𝑒 1 𝑁𝑠
𝑘= 𝑘=
𝑅𝑜 1 − 0.04665𝑒 0.005577𝑁𝑠 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −0.1057𝐻𝑠
 electronics systems and technologies
K FACTOR CONDITIONS
• Sub-Standard Condition (k < 1) - it is the condition wherein the microwave
beam is bent away from Earth.
• Standard Condition (k = 4/3) - it is the condition wherein the fictitious Earth's
radius appears to the microwave beams to be longer than the true Earth's
radius.
• Super-Standard Condition (k > 4/3) - it is the condition wherein it results in an
effective flattening of the equivalent Earth's curvature.
• Infinity Condition (𝑘 = ∞) - it is the condition wherein it results to zero
curvature (as if the Earth is flat) and the microwave beam follows the
curvature of the Earth.
 electronics systems and technologies
K FACTOR CONDITIONS
 electronics systems and technologies
EARTH BULGE AND CURVATURE
It is the number of feet or meters an obstacle is raised higher in elevation (into
the path) owing to Earth's curvature or Earth's bulge.

𝑑1 𝑚𝑖𝑑2 𝑚𝑖 𝑑1 𝑘𝑚 𝑑2 𝑘𝑚
ℎ𝑓𝑡 = ℎ𝑚 =
1.5𝑘 12.75𝑘
 electronics systems and technologies
EARTH BULGE AND CURVATURE

h OPTICAL RADIO
HORIZON HORIZON

d1 d2
 electronics systems and technologies
MAXIMUM RADIO HORIZON
The radio range is greater than the optical range because the effect of the
Earth's atmosphere is to cause bending of the radio waves, which carries it
beyond the optical horizon.

𝐷𝑚𝑖 = 2ℎ𝑓𝑡 + 2ℎ𝑓𝑡 𝐷𝑘𝑚 = 17ℎ𝑚 + 17ℎ𝑚

electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 6
To install an antenna with an LOS transmission at a distance of 75
miles, determine the height of a receiving antenna if the transmitting
antenna is 250 ft.
A. 1385 ft
B. 600 ft
C. 400 ft
D. 255 ft
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 7
What is the free space loss, in dB, between two microwave antennas
38 km apart operating at 7 GHz?
A. 145.6 dB
B. 138.5 dB
C. 135.5 dB
D. 140.89 dB
 electronics systems and technologies
EFFECTIVE ISOTROPIC RADIATED POWER EIRP
It is defined by the radiated power by an antenna in its favored direction, taking
into account as referenced to the isotropic radiator.

𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃𝑑𝑏 = 𝑃𝑡 𝑑𝐵 − 𝐿𝑡 𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑡 𝑑𝐵
 electronics systems and technologies
FREE SPACE LOSS FSL
• It is also known as free space path loss, and it is defined as the loss
incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line
through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from nearby
objects.
• It assumes ideal atmospheric conditions, so no electromagnetic energy is
actually lost or dissipated (it merely spreads out as it propagates away from
the source resulting in lower relative power densities) - a more appropriate
term for this phenomena is spreading loss.
2
4𝜋𝐷 4𝜋𝐷
𝐹𝑆𝐿 = 𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 20 log
𝜆 𝜆
 electronics systems and technologies
FREE SPACE LOSS FSL
𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 36.6 + 20 log 𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 20 log 𝐷𝑚𝑖

𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 96.6 + 20 log 𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 + 20 log 𝐷𝑚𝑖

𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 32.4 + 20 log 𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 20 log 𝐷𝑘𝑚

𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 92.4 + 20 log 𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 + 20 log 𝐷𝑘𝑚

 electronics systems and technologies
ISOTROPIC RECEIVER LEVEL IRL
It is the RF signal level impinging on the far end receiver antenna as if it were
an isotropic antenna.

𝐼𝑅𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 𝑃𝑡 𝑑𝐵 − 𝐿𝑡 𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑡 𝑑𝐵 − 𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵

𝐼𝑅𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃𝑑𝐵 − 𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵

 electronics systems and technologies
RECEIVED SIGNAL LEVEL RSL
It is simply the level of signal at the receiving end of the transmission.

𝑅𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 𝑃𝑡 𝑑𝐵 − 𝐿𝑡 𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑡 𝑑𝐵 − 𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑟 𝑑𝐵 − 𝐿𝑟 𝑑𝐵

𝑅𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅𝐿𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑟 𝑑𝐵 − 𝐿𝑟 𝑑𝐵

𝑅𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 𝐹𝑀𝑑𝐵 + 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵

 electronics systems and technologies
MICROWAVE PATH CALCULATION
𝐼𝑅𝐿
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 𝑅𝑆𝐿
𝐺𝑇 𝐺𝑅

𝐹𝑆𝐿

MICROWAVE MICROWAVE
TRANSMITTER TRANSMITTER
𝐿𝑇 𝐿𝑅
𝑃𝑇
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 7
What is the free space loss, in dB, between two microwave antennas
38 km apart operating at 7 GHz?
A. 145.6 dB
B. 138.5 dB
C. 135.5 dB
D. 140.89 dB
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 8
A microwave communications system space loss calculation formula
A. 94.2 + 20 log F + 20 log D
B. 92.4 + 20 log F + 20 log D
C. 94.2 + 10 log F + 20 log D
D. 92.3 + 10 log F + 20 log D
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 9
The optimum clearance from an obstacle in a microwave system is
accepted as ________ of the first Fresnel zone radius.
A. 0.6
B. 0.5
C. 0.9
D. 1.5
 electronics systems and technologies
AUGUSTINE JEAN FRESNEL
The first person to produce circular polarization (circularly polarized light).

FRESNEL ZONES
• These are series of concentric ellipsoids that surrounds the path from the
transmitter to receiver.
• These are derived from electromagnetic wave theory, that a wavefront has
expanding properties as it travels through space.

𝑛𝜆𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑛𝑐𝑑1 𝑑2
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛 =
𝐷 𝑓𝐷
 electronics systems and technologies
FIRST FRESNEL ZONE
It is the surface containing every point for which the sum of the distance from
that point to the two ends of the path is exactly half wavelength longer than the
direct path.

𝑑1 𝑚𝑖 𝑑2 𝑚𝑖 𝑑1 𝑘𝑚 𝑑2 𝑘𝑚
𝐹1 𝑓𝑡 = 72.1 𝐹1 𝑚 = 17.3
𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 𝐷𝑚𝑖 𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 𝐷𝑘𝑚
 electronics systems and technologies
FRESNEL ZONE CLEARANCE
To achieve a normal transmission loss approximately equal to the free space
path loss, the transmission path should pass over all obstacles with a clearance
of at least 0.6 times the distance of the first Fresnel zone distance (taking into
account the unusual condition in the atmosphere).

𝐹𝑐 = 0.6𝐹1

NTH FRESNEL ZONES

𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹1 𝑛
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 10
AGILA satellite is located 36000 km above the earth’s surface.
Assuming free space condition what is the path loss of the signal if
the operating frequency is 3 GHz?
A. 193.07 dB
B. 23.2 dB
C. 489 dB
D. 1256.20 dB
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 10
AGILA satellite is located 36000 km above the earth’s surface.
Assuming free space condition what is the path loss of the signal if
the operating frequency is 3 GHz?
A. 193.07 dB
B. 23.2 dB
C. 489 dB
D. 1256.20 dB
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 11
A satellite transmitter operates at a 4 GHz with a transmitter power of
7W and an antenna gain of 40 dBi. The receiver has antenna gain of
30 dBi, and the path length is 40,000 km. calculate the signal
strength at the receiver.
A. -88 dBm
B. -98 dBm
C. -77 dBm
D. -79.8 dBm
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 11
A satellite transmitter operates at a 4 GHz with a transmitter power of
7W and an antenna gain of 40 dBi. The receiver has antenna gain of
30 dBi, and the path length is 40,000 km. calculate the signal
strength at the receiver.
A. -88 dBm
B. -98 dBm
C. -77 dBm
D. -79.8 dBm
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 12
A transmitter has a power output of 110 W at a carrier frequency of
150 MHz. It is connected to an antenna with a power gain of 100.
The receiving antenna is 17.5 km away and has a power gain of 20
dBi. Calculate the power delivered to the receiver, assuming free-
space propagation. Assume also that there are no losses or
mismatches in the system.
A. -10.41 dB
B. -10.41 nW
C. -10.41 dBm
D. -40.41 dBm
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 12
A transmitter has a power output of 110 W at a carrier frequency of
150 MHz. It is connected to an antenna with a power gain of 100.
The receiving antenna is 17.5 km away and has a power gain of 20
dBi. Calculate the power delivered to the receiver, assuming free-
space propagation. Assume also that there are no losses or
mismatches in the system.
A. -10.41 dB
B. -10.41 nW
C. -10.41 dBm
D. -40.41 dBm
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 13
A transmitter and a receiver is 45 km apart. Suppose that there is an
obstacle midway between the transmitter and receiver. By how much
must the path between the towers clear the obstacle in order to avoid
diffraction at a frequency of 11 GHz?
A. 9.12 m
B. 10.51 m
C. 11.17 m
D. 12.40 m
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 13
A transmitter and a receiver is 45 km apart. Suppose that there is an
obstacle midway between the transmitter and receiver. By how much
must the path between the towers clear the obstacle in order to avoid
diffraction at a frequency of 11 GHz?
A. 9.12 m
B. 10.51 m
C. 11.17 m
D. 12.40 m
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 14
What must be the height of the antenna between two points operating
at 3 GHz if there is an obstacle 5 m high on top of a 15-m building
given that the distance between the stations is 75 km and the
obstacle is found 20 km from the receiving station?
A. 108 km
B. 98 km
C. 108 m
D. 98 m
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 14
What must be the height of the antenna between two points operating
at 3 GHz if there is an obstacle 5 m high on top of a 15-m building
given that the distance between the stations is 75 km and the
obstacle is found 20 km from the receiving station?
A. 108 km
B. 98 km
C. 108 m
D. 98 m
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 15
Determine the fade margin for a 22 km microwave hop. The RF carrier
frequency is 15 GHz, the terrain is average with very dry temperature
and the reliability objective is 99.995%.
A. 23.79
B. 239.58
C. 113.79
D. 344.58
 electronics systems and technologies
FADE MARGIN FM
• It is also known as link margin, which is a fudge factor included in system
gain equations that considers the non-ideal and less predictable
characteristics of radio wave propagation and terrain sensitivity.
• It is the attenuation allowance so that anticipated fading will still keep the
signal above specified minimum RF input.
• It is computed using the Barnett-Vignant Reliability Equation.

𝐹𝑀 = 30 log 𝐷𝑘𝑚 + 10 log 6𝐴𝐵𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 − 10 log 1 − 𝑅 − 70

 electronics systems and technologies
ROUGHNESS FACTOR, A
over water or a very smooth terrain 4
over average terrain 1
over very rough, mountainous terrain 0.25

CLIMATIC FACTOR, B
to convert annual availability to worst month basis 1
hot, humid areas 0.5
average inland areas 0.25
very dry, mountainous areas 0.125
 electronics systems and technologies
AVAILABILITY
The fundamental system availability is defined as the system without built-in
redundancy and a function of MTBF (mean time before failure) and MTTR
(mean time to repair).

𝑀𝑇𝐵𝐹 𝑀𝑇𝑇𝑅
𝐴= 𝑈=
𝑀𝑇𝐵𝐹 + 𝑀𝑇𝑇𝑅 𝑀𝑇𝐵𝐹 + 𝑀𝑇𝑇𝑅

𝑈 =1−𝐴
 electronics systems and technologies
RELIABILITY
• The number of repeater stations between protection switches depends on
the reliability objectives of the system (typically there are between two and
six repeaters between switching stations).
• Practical systems often have reliability in the range of 99.99%, that is, the
system may be down for about one hour per year, or even less.

𝑅 = 1 − 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 100
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 15
Determine the fade margin for a 22 km microwave hop. The RF carrier
frequency is 15 GHz, the terrain is average with very dry temperature
and the reliability objective is 99.995%.
A. 23.79
B. 239.58
C. 113.79
D. 344.58
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 16
The average lifetime of geosynchronous satellites is about __________
years.
A. 5
B. 10
C. 15
D. 20
 electronics systems and technologies
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
It is basically a microwave communications employing a spacecraft
(communication satellite) placed in orbit around the Earth, relaying signals from
point-to-point.

SATELLITE
It is a celestial body that orbits around a planet.
 electronics systems and technologies
COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE
• It is a microwave repeater in the sky
that consists of a receiver, transmitter,
multiplexers, demultiplexers, and an
antenna.
• It is a man-made satellite that orbits the
Earth, providing a multitude of
communication functions to a wide
variety of consumers, including military,
governmental, private and commercial
subscriber.
 electronics systems and technologies
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
It consists of one or more satellite space vehicles, a ground-based station to
control the operation of the system, and a user network of Earth stations that
provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial
communications traffic through the satellite system.
 electronics systems and technologies
ADVANTAGES OF A SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
• Wideband capacity or wide area of coverage.
• Superior reliability and lesser costs than terrestrial system.
• Direct services to subscriber's premises.
• Point-to-point and point-to-multipoint.
• Readily compatible with new technology and uniform access possibilities
for all users.
 electronics systems and technologies
DISADVANTAGES OF A SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
• High initial investment or start-up cost.
• Short life span (7-10 years).
• Expensive maintenance.
• Very dependent on reliability of launch vehicles.
• Require high investments on Earth stations.
• Subject to interception and jamming by enemy forces.
• Signal propagation delay or delayed response time.
• Risky launching or failures in attaining proper orbit.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 17
The required antenna size __________ as the operating frequency of a
system increases, assuming that antenna gain remains unchanged.
A. Remains the same
B. Increases
C. Decreases
D. All of the above
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 18
The first passive satellite
A. Telstar
B. Early Bird
C. Sputnik I
D. Moon
 electronics systems and technologies
MOON
• It is a natural and it is visible by reflection of sunlight having slightly
elliptical orbit.
• It became the first passive satellite in 1954, however, it is inconvenient and
unreliable.
 electronics systems and technologies
SPUTNIK I
• It was the first active Earth satellite by Russia (designed by Sergei
Korolev) in 1957, which is capable of amplifying, reshaping, regenerating
and retransmitting information.
• It was launched on October 4, 1957, and transmitted telemetry (measuring
from afar) for 21 days.

SPUTNIK II
It was the first satellite to carry a living animal, a dog named Laika, and was
launched on November 3, 1957.
 electronics systems and technologies
EXPLORER I
It was the first space craft to detect the Van Allen Radiation Belt.
It was launched by the United States on January 31, 1958, and transmitted
telemetry information for nearly 5 months.

VAN ALLEN RADIATION BELT

• It was discovered by James Van
Allen.
• It is a torus of energetic particles
(plasma) around the Earth, which is
held in place by Earth's magnetic field.
• Its radiation is so extreme that it can
destroy any space craft which passes
on it.
 electronics systems and technologies
SCORE
• SCORE stands for signal communication by orbital relay.
• It is a 150-pound conical-shaped, delayed repeater satellite.
• It was the first communication satellite, and the first artificial satellite used
for relaying terrestrial communications (it broadcasted President Dwight
Eisenhower's Christmas Message).
• It was launched by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space
Administration) on December 18, 1958.
 electronics systems and technologies
ECHO
• It is a satelloon or a balloon satellite, which is 100 feet in diameter (i.e., it is a
passive reflector which is made up of plastic balloon with aluminum
coating).
• It was launched by NASA in conjunction with Bell Laboratories and the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, and accomplished the first transatlantic
transmission.

COURIER
• It was the first transponder (half duplex) type satellite, however, it lasted
only for 17 days with 3 Watts of transmitted power.
• It was launched by the United States Department of Defense.
 electronics systems and technologies
TELSTAR I
• It was the first active satellite to simultaneously receive and transmit (full
duplex) radio signals, however, lasted only for a few weeks because it was
damaged by Van Allen Belts.
• It was launched by AT&T on July 10, 1962.

TELSTAR II
• It is electronically identical to Telstar I but more radiation resistant, and
accomplished the first successful transatlantic video transmission (was
used for telephone television, facsimile and data transmission).
• It was launched on May 7, 1963.
 electronics systems and technologies
PROJECT SYNCOM
• SYNCOM stands for synchronous communications satellite.
• It demonstrated the feasibility of geosynchronous satellite.
• The SYNCOM II and SYNCOM III were successfully launched after the loss of
SYNCOM I.
 electronics systems and technologies
SYNCOM I
• It was the first to attempt to be placed in a geosynchronous orbit (it was
lost on the way to geosynchronous orbit due to an electronic failure).
• It was launched on February 14, 1963.

SYNCOM II
It is the first geosynchronous satellite that was launched on July 26, 1963.

SYNCOM III
It was used to telecast the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, and it was
launched on August 19, 1964.
 electronics systems and technologies
INTELSAT I
• INTELSAT stands for international telecommunications satellite
organization.
• It is also known as the Early Bird, and was the first commercial
telecommunications satellite, which used two transponders and a 25-MHz
bandwidth to simultaneously carry one television signal and 480 voice
channels.
• It was placed in geostationary orbit from Cape Kennedy on April 6, 1965.
 electronics systems and technologies
MOLNIYA
• Molniya means lightning.
• These were the first set of domestic satellites (Domsats), and were
launched by the former Soviet Union on April 23, 1965.

ANIK
• Anik is an Inuit word which means little brother.
• It was used for television, and was launched by TELESAT Canada on 1972.
 electronics systems and technologies
AGILA 2
• It is also known as Mabuhay I and ABS 5.
• It was a telecommunication satellite for Mabuhay Philippines Satellite
Corporation. It provided telephone, digital broadcast television and data
services to the Philippines and South East Asia.
• It consists of 30 C-band transponders at 27 Watts and 24 Ku-band
transponders at 110 Watts.
• It was designed, built and launched by Space Systems (LORAL).
• It was launched on August 19, 1997 at Xichang Satellite Launch Center
with a launch vehicle (rocket which is used to launch a satellite): Long
March CZ-3B.
• It has 15 years lifespan (extended until 2014).
• It has a geostationary orbit and located 146° E longitude (0° latitude).
 electronics systems and technologies
DIWATA I
• It is the first Philippine microsatellite and the first satellite built and
designed by Filipinos; it was named after a type of divine being from
Philippine mythology, the diwata.
• It is also known as PHL-Microsat-1 and it is a Philippine microsatellite
launched to the International Space Station (ISS) in March 23, 2016, and
was deployed into orbit from the ISS in April 27, 2016.
• It is the first satellite of the venture made possible through the Philippine
Scientific Earth Observation Microsatellite (PHL Microsat) Program, a
three-year program funded by the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST); the program is a collaboration between the University of the
Philippines, the DOST - Advanced Science and Technology Institute
(DOST-ASTI), and Japan's Tohoku University and Hokkaido University.
 electronics systems and technologies
DIWATA I
• A ground station based in the Philippines, the Philippine Earth Data
Resources Observation (PEDRO) Center, has primary control over the
satellite with a command line on the UHF band; PEDRO receives telemetry
data sent by Diwata-1 via UHF band and receives images via X-band; the
Tohoku University ground station (CRESST) also has access to the
satellite.
• As of October 2018, Diwata-1 has captured 14,492 images in the Philippines
covering an area equivalent to 32% of the country's land area; as of the same
month, the satellite remains operational and is projected to be still functioning
for at least three years given favorable conditions in space.
 electronics systems and technologies
MAYA I
• It is the first nanosatellite of the Philippines which was launched to space
on June 29, 2018, and was developed under the Philippine Scientific Earth
Observation Microsatellite program (jointly implemented by the University
of the Philippines and the Department of Science and Technology) and
the Kyushu Institute of Technology-led multinational 2nd Joint Global
Multination Birds Project (Birds-2).
• The mission of Maya-1 is for "experimentally testing of commercial
apparatus" and due to its size, "a cost-effective educational platform" to help
Filipinos build future satellites.
• The satellite could also be used to relay messages in the event typhoons
render cellular services unavailable.
• The satellite will be operational from about six months to about a year.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 19
A geostationary satellite is one which
A. Hangs motionless in space about 36,000 km above the earth
B. Travels around the earth about 24 hrs.
C. Remains stationary above the earth
D. Appears stationary above the earth
 electronics systems and technologies
GEOSYNCHRONOUS OR GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE GEO
• It is also known as Clarke orbit or Clarke belt, and it is the most widely
used satellite orbit.
• It is an orbit in which a satellite orbits the Earth above the equator with the
same angular velocity as the Earth.
• Based Arthur Clarke's novel a GEO satellite must:
✓ Located directly above the equator.
✓ Travel in the same direction as Earth's rotation at 6840 mph.
✓ Have an altitude of 22300 miles above the Earth (35786 km).
✓ Complete one revolution in 24 hours (approximate).
 electronics systems and technologies
ADVANTAGES OF LEO AND MEO SATELLITES
• The path loss between Earth stations and space vehicles is much lower
than for GEO satellites (less path loss means lower transmit powers,
smaller antennas, and less weight).
• They have shorter propagation delays.

DISADVANTAGES OF LEO AND MEO SATELLITES

• The cost of their production is high due to the additional components
required to control the gravitational force of the Earth (low altitudes, high
gravitational pull).
• They are not available all the times (not stationary).
 electronics systems and technologies
ADVANTAGES OF GEO SATELLITES
• They remain almost stationary in respect to a given Earth station.
• They are available to Earth within their shadows 100% of the time.
• No need to switch from one geosynchronous satellite to another as they
orbit overhead.
• The effects of Doppler shift are negligible.
DISADVANTAGES OF GEO SATELLITES
• They require sophisticated and heavy propulsion device onboard to keep
them in a fixed orbit.
• They have much longer propagation delays.
• They requires higher transmit power and more sensitive receivers
because of the longer distances and greater path loss.
• High precision spacemanship is required.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 20
The earth's area or region that the satellite can receive from or
transmit to
A. Footprint
B. Skip zone
C. Primary area
D. Fingerprint
 electronics systems and technologies
FOOTPRINT MAP
It is the geographical representation of a satellite antenna's radiation pattern.
 electronics systems and technologies
CATEGORIES OF FOOTPRINT
• Spot & Zonal Beams - these are the smallest beams. Spot beams
concentrate their power to very small geographical areas. Spot and zonal
beams blanket less than 10% of the Earth's surface.
• Hemispherical Beams - hemispherical downlink antennas typically target up
to 20% of the Earth's surface.
• Earth (Global) Beams - radiation patterns of Earth coverage antennas have a
beamwidth of approximately 17° and capable of covering 42% of the
Earth's surface.
 electronics systems and technologies
SATELLITE LOCATION
• It is specified by a point on the surface of the Earth directly below the satellite
known as the SSP (sub-satellite point).
• The line traced on the surface of the Earth from the SSP's of non
geosynchronous satellites is known as the sub-satellite path or the ground
track.

SATELLITE ATTITUDE
• It is the satellite's orientation in space.
• Attitude control is necessary to keep the directional antennas aboard the
satellite pointing to the desired regions of the Earth.
• A satellite's attitude can be altered along one or more of three axes (roll,
pitch, and yaw).
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 21
Satellite rotating in an orbit takes it over the north and south poles is
in
A. Inclined orbit
B. Polar orbit
C. Equatorial orbit
D. Declined orbit
 electronics systems and technologies
EQUATORIAL ORBIT
• It is an orbit with a circular shape and has no inclination, thus it is in line
with equator (i.e., above the equator).
• An example of an equatorial orbit is the GEO (geosynchronous or
geostationary) orbit.
 electronics systems and technologies
POLAR ORBIT
• It is an orbit with a circular shape and has a 90° inclination.
• It guarantees that the satellite will pass over every region of the Earth (a
minimum of one satellite with polar orbit can cover or sweep all places
around the world).
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 22
"The orbit of any planet is an ellipse with the sun at one focus". This is
A. Kepler's First Law
B. Kepler's Second Law
C. Kepler's Third Law
D. Law of universal Gravitation
 electronics systems and technologies
KEPLERS LAWS
• Johannes Kepler is a German astronomer who discovered the laws that
governs satellite motion.
• These laws of planetary motion describe the shape of the orbit, the
velocities of the planet and the distance of the planet is with respect to the
sun.
 electronics systems and technologies
KEPLERS FIRST LAW – LAW OF ORBITS
It states that a satellite will orbit a primary body (Earth) following an elliptical
path.
 electronics systems and technologies
KEPLERS SECOND LAW – LAW OF AREAS
It states that for equal intervals of time a satellite will sweep out equal areas in
the orbital plane, focused at the barycenter (Earth).
 electronics systems and technologies
KEPLERS THIRD LAW – HARMONIC LAW
It states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the
cube of the mean distance between the primary (Earth) and the satellite.

2
𝛼= 𝐴𝑃3

A = 42241.0979
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 23
The actual user information conveyed through the satellite system
A. Bus transmission
B. Payload
C. Prograde
D. Retrograde
 electronics systems and technologies
ORBITAL SATELLITE
These satellites are non-synchronous, and rotate around the Earth in an
elliptical or circular pattern.
PROGRADE OR POSIGRADE
It is an orbit which rotates in the same direction as Earth's rotation
(counterclockwise, west to east) and having an angular velocity greater than
the Earth.
RETROGRADE
It is an orbit which rotates in the opposite direction as Earth's rotation; it can be
also an orbit which rotates in the same direction as Earth's rotation and having
an angular velocity less than of the Earth.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 24
The _________ angle measures the satellite position clockwise from
the direction of true North
A. Elevation
B. Depression
C. Azimuth
D. Incidence
 electronics systems and technologies
ANTENNA LOOK ANGLES
• These are used in order to determine
the location of the satellite from the
Earth station.
• The angle of elevation and the angle of
azimuth both depend on the latitude of
the Earth station and the longitude of
both the Earth station and the orbiting
satellite.
 electronics systems and technologies
ANGLE OF ELEVATION
• It is the vertical angle formed between the direction of travel of
electromagnetic wave radiated from an Earth station antenna pointing directly
toward a satellite and the horizontal plane.
• The minimum angle of elevation is 5°, an angle of elevation less than 5° is
avoided because the signal will be more attenuated (longer range to travel)
and will be more prone to absorption.

1 𝑅
𝛽= tan−1 −
tan 𝜙 𝑅 + ℎ sin 𝜙
 electronics systems and technologies
ANGLE OF AZIMUTH
• It is the horizontal angular distance from a reference direction, either the
southern or northern most point of the horizon (i.e., it is the horizontal
pointing angle of an Earth station antenna).
• It is usually measured in a clockwise direction in degrees from true north.

tan 𝜑
𝐴𝑧 = cos −1 −
tan 𝜙
 electronics systems and technologies
SATELLITE RANGE OR DISTANCE
It is basically the distance of the satellite from an Earth station.

2
𝑅+𝐻 = 𝑅2 + 𝑑2 − 2𝑑𝑅 cos(90 − 𝛽)

𝑑= 𝑅+𝐻 2 − 𝑅2 cos2 𝛽 − 𝑅 sin 𝛽

 electronics systems and technologies
SATELLITE VELOCITY

4 × 1011
𝑣𝑚𝑝𝑠 =
𝐻𝑘𝑚 + 𝑅𝑘𝑚

4 × 1011
𝑣𝑘𝑝ℎ = 3.6
𝐻𝑘𝑚 + 𝑅𝑘𝑚
 electronics systems and technologies
SATELLITE DECLINATION ANGLE

𝑅 sin 𝐿
𝜃 = arctan
𝐻 + 𝑅(1 − cos 𝐿)
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 25
Repeaters inside communications satellites are known as
A. Transceivers
B. Transponders
C. Transducers
D. TWT
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 26
A satellite signal transmitted from a satellite transponder to earth’s
station.
A. Uplink
B. Downlink
C. Terrestrial
D. Earthbound
 electronics systems and technologies
notes
• Satellite link is a communications path formed
between two or more ground stations
transmitting and receiving radio communications
traffic via satellite.
• Downlink is the transmitted signal from the
satellite to the receiving stations. Uplink is the
transmitted signal from the Earth station to the
satellite. Uplink frequency is always higher than
the downlink frequency.
• Crosslink is a radio or optical connection directly
between satellites, without going through an
Earth station.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 27
A PIN diode is
A. a metal semiconductor point-contact diode
B. a microwave mixer diode
C. often used as a microwave detector
D. suitable for use as a microwave switch
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 28
A rectangular waveguide has a width of 1 inch and a height of 0.6
inch. Its cut-off frequency is
A. 2.54 GHz
B. 3.0 GHz
C. 5.9 GHz
D. 11.8 GHz
electronics systems and technologies
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 28
A rectangular waveguide has a width of 1 inch and a height of 0.6
inch. Its cut-off frequency is
A. 2.54 GHz
B. 3.0 GHz
C. 5.9 GHz
D. 11.8 GHz
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 29
A method of multiple accessing where a given RF channel bandwidth
is divided into smaller frequency band.
A. CDMA
B. ANIK-D
C. TDMA
D. FDMA
 electronics systems and technologies
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS FDMA
• In this technique, each station's transmission are assigned to a specific
uplink and downlink frequency bands within an allocated satellite channel
bandwidth.
• The transmissions from different Earth stations are separated in frequency
domain.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS TDMA
• In this technique, each Earth station transmits a short burst of information
during a specific time slot (epoch) within a TDMA frame.
• The burst may be synchronized so that each station's burst arrives at the
satellite at a different time.
• The transmissions from different Earth stations are separated in the time
domain.
 electronics systems and technologies
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS CDMA
• It is also known as spread spectrum multiple access (transmission can
spread throughout the entire allocated bandwidth).
• In this technique, all Earth stations transmit within the same frequency band
and have no limitations on when they may transmit or on which frequency
band.
• Signal separation is accomplished with envelope encryption and
decryption techniques.
• Each Earth station's transmissions are encoded with a unique binary word
known as chip code.
 electronics systems and technologies
Question no. 30
What height must a satellite be placed above the surface of the earth
in order for its rotation to be equal to earth’s rotation?
A. 26,426.4 miles
B. 27,426.4 miles
C. 23,426.4 miles
D. 22,426.4 miles
electronics systems and technologies

END