E2 Weather and Climate

E2.3 What is atmospheric motion?

A What is air pressure? HKDSE DBQ 2016 Q2aiii

1 Air pressure is the force exerted by the atmosphere on the earth’s surface.
2 Table 1 shows the factors affecting air pressure.
Table 1
1 Altitude
‧ In the lower atmosphere, air pressure
Thin
decreases with increasing altitude atmosphere

‧ At mountain peaks, the overlying Thick

atmosphere
atmosphere is
thinner and the air is lighter.
Therefore, the air pressure is lower. Mountain
Figure 1 Thickness of the atmosphere
‧ At the foothills, the overlying atmosphere is thicker and the air is heavier. Therefore, the air pressure
is higher.
2 Air temperature
‧ Air pressure decreases with
increasing air temperature
Hot air rises Cold air sinks
‧ When air is heated, it expands and
rises. Air near the ground becomes
less dense. Air pressure decreases.
‧ When air is cooled, it contracts and
sinks. Air near the ground becomes Earth’s surface Earth’s surface
denser. Air pressure increases.

Figure 2 How air temperature affects air pressure

3 Air movement
‧ When air converges near the earth’s Air converges and rises Air sinks and diverges
surface, it rises. Density of air
becomes lower near the earth’s
surface. Air pressure decreases
‧ When air sinks, it diverges near the
Earth’s surface
earth’s surface. Density of air
Earth’s surface
becomes higher near the earth’s
surface. Air pressure increases
Figure 3 Air movement near the earth’s surface

18
3 a How are air pressure belts formed?

There is an uneven distribution of insolation on the earth’s surface. This results in great
differences in air temperatures between the poles and the Equator. The resulting air
movements create the four major air pressure belts.

b Refer to Figure 4. Table 2 shows the characteristics of the air pressure belts.

Figure 4 Major pressure belts on the earth

Table 2
Air Air
Pressure belt Air movement
temperature pressure
Equatorial low High as the ‧ Air heats up, expands and rises Low
(10N to 10S) regions receive ‧ Air also converges and rises
much insolation
insolation
Air Air
Pressure belt Air movement
temperature pressure
Subtropical Moderate ‧ Rising air at the Equator reaches High
highs the top of the lower atmosphere. It
(Around 30N cannot rise further and is forced to
and 30S) move towards the poles
‧ When the air reaches around 30N
and 30S, it sinks and diverges at
the earth’s surface. Some air moves
towards the poles
Polar highs Extremely low Air contracts and sinks High
(Around 90N due to the small
and 90S) angle of the sun

19
 Subpolar lows Cool ‧ Cold air from polar highs moves Low
(Around 60N towards the Equator and
and 60S) converges with warm air from
subtropical highs at around 60N
and 60S
‧ The lighter warm air rises

B How are air pressure and winds related? HKDSE DBQ 2013 Q2bii
1 How are winds created?

They are created by the horizontal movement of the air that is generated from the difference
in air pressure on the ground. Winds blow from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.

2 a What does the pressure gradient refer to?

It refers to the rate of change in air pressure with distance.

b How is the pressure gradient related to the direction and the strength of winds?

It results in the pressure gradient force, which directs winds to blow from high- to
low-pressure areas. The steeper the pressure gradient, the stronger the wind.

c Pressure gradient along A–B and C–D.

Figure 5 An isobaric map

Difference in air pressure
Pressure gradient =
Distance
i Pressure gradient along A–B
1014－1002 hPa
= 0.5 hPa/km
10 km × 2.2
ii Pressure gradient along C–D
1011－1002 hPa
= 0.3 hPa/km
10 km × 3.3
d The wind blowing from A to B is stronger.

20
C How does the earth’s rotation affect winds?
HKDSE Essay 2015 Q6, 2019 Q6
1 a The theoretical wind directions near the earth’s surface.

Figure 6 Theoretical wind directions

b Refer to Figure 7.

Figure 7 Paths of motion of winds on the rotating earth

i To which direction does the earth rotate on its axis?

The earth rotates on its axis from west to east.

ii How are winds deflected due to the rotation of the earth?

In the Northern Hemisphere, wind is deflected to the right of their path of motion. In
the Southern Hemisphere, it is deflected to the left.

iii What is the name of the force that causes the deflection of winds?

It is called the Coriolis force.

c Mark the direction of the deflected winds on Figure 8.

21
 Figure 8 Deflected winds
d What is the name of the global wind system as shown in Figure 8?

It is called the planetary wind system.

2 Refer to Figure 9.

Figure 9 Planetary winds and the associated air pressure belts

a Table 3 shows the characteristics of the three major wind belts.

Table 3
Name Region Wind direction
 Trade winds Between 30N ‧ They blow from the subtropical highs to
and 30S the __________________________
‧ They are north-easterlies in Northern
Hemisphere and south-easterlies in the
Southern Hemisphere
 Westerlies Between 30 ‧ They blow from the subtropical highs to
and 60 north the ____________________________

22
 and south ‧ They are south-westerlies in the Northern
Hemisphere and ____________________
in the Southern Hemisphere
 Polar Between 60 ‧ They blow from the _______________ to
easterlies and 90 north the subpolar lows
and south ‧ They are north-easterlies in the Northern
Hemisphere and ____________________
in the Southern Hemisphere

b There are two major boundaries where winds converge and rise:

 _________________________________________________: The contact zone where

trade winds from the north and south converge and rise.

 _________________________: The boundary at around 60°N and 60°S where cold air
from the poles meets the warm air from the ____________________________. The
two air masses converge and the lighter warm air rises.

D How do the air pressure belts and wind belts shift with the seasons?

HKDSE DBQ 2018 Q2a; Essay 2019 Q6

1 Figure 10a shows the air pressure belts and wind belts in July.

Figure 10a Air pressure belts and wind belts in July

a Compare Figures 9 and 10a. The locations of the air pressure belts and wind belts shift
northwards.
b The shifting of the air pressure belts and wind belts in July:

In July, the overhead sun moves to around 23½°N. The hottest belt of the earth shifts
northwards. It brings the air pressure belts and wind belts northwards for around 5° to 15°

23
 of latitude.

c Effects on the south-east trade winds:

The south-east trade winds shift northwards and cross the Equator to the Northern
Hemisphere. They are then deflected into south-west trade winds.

2 Refer to Figure 10b.

Figure 10b Air pressure belts and wind belts in January

a Describe and explain the shifting of the air pressure belts and wind belts in January.

b Describe the effects on the north-east trade winds.

24
E What is the tri-cellular model of atmospheric circulation?

1 Refer to Figure 11 and Table 4 which summarize the general circulation of the atmosphere
using the tri-cellular model.

Figure 11 The tri-cellular model of atmospheric circulation

Table 4
Cell Region Detail of air movement
 Between ‧ At the equatorial low, the high temperatures cause air to
Hadley 0° and 30° rise. When the rising air reaches the top of the lower
cell north and atmosphere, it is forced to towards the poles
south ‧ The air aloft converges with the air of the Ferrel cell at
about 30°N and 30°S. The air descends.
‧ As the air reaches the earth’s surface, some of the air moves
towards the Equator as trade winds.
‧ Trade winds converge at the Intertropical Convergence
Zone. Air rises again and the cycle continues.

 Ferrel Between ‧ As the descending air reaches the earth’s surface at about
cell 30° and 30°N and 30°S, some of the air moves towards the
60° north subpolar lows as westerlies
and south ‧ These winds meet the polar easterlies at about 60°N and
60°S. Warmer air from the subtropical highs rises above the
cold air at the polar front.
‧ When the rising air reaches the top of the lower atmosphere,
some of the air returns to the subtropical highs. The cycle
continues.

25
 Cell Region Detail of air movement
 Between ‧ At the polar highs, the low temperatures cause air to
Polar cell 60° and descend
90° north ‧ The cold air moves towards the subpolar lows as polar
and south easterlies.
‧ These winds converge with the westerlies from the
subtropical highs at about 60°N and 60°S. The warm air
rises at the polar front
‧ When the rising air reaches the top of the lower atmosphere,
some of the air moves towards the poles. The cycle
continues.

F What is the world pattern of air pressure belts?

1 The distribution of land and sea affects the world pattern of air pressure belts.

Figure 12a World average surface air pressure patterns in July

a Air pressure patterns in July:

‧ All pressure belts shift towards the north.

‧ The equatorial low extends to cover the Asian continental interior and
North America. Intense low-pressure cells develop over the land.
‧ In the Northern Hemisphere, the subtropical high is broken into cells over the sea. In
the Southern Hemisphere, it extends over the land.
‧ In the Northern Hemisphere, the subpolar low is broken. In the Southern Hemisphere,
it forms a continuous belt over the sea.
26
 b Complete the flow chart below to show the reasons for this pattern in July in the Northern
Hemisphere.

In northern summer, land heats up more

‧ Low-pressure belts intensify
( rapidly / slowly ) than the sea
and extend over the land
‧ Intense _______________
( Lower / Higher ) air temperatures cells develop over the land
over the land

( Lower / Higher ) air density over the land High-pressure belts are broken and
form high-pressure cells over the
( Low / High ) air pressure over the land __________

2 Refer to Figure 12b and answer the following questions.

Figure 12b World average surface air pressure patterns in January

27
 a Air pressure patterns in January:
‧ All pressure belts shift towards the south.
‧ The equatorial low extends over central Africa, northern Australia, and central
South America.
‧ In the Northern Hemisphere, the subtropical high extends over the landmass of
Asia and North America. Intense high-pressure cell develops over the
land. In the Southern Hemisphere, the subtropical high is broken and forms
high-pressure cells over the sea.
‧ In the Northern Hemisphere, the subpolar low is broken. In the Southern Hemisphere,
it forms a continuous belt over the sea.

b Complete the flow chart below to show the reasons for this pattern in January in the
Northern Hemisphere.

In northern winter, land cools down

‧ High-pressure belts intensify
more ( rapidly / slowly ) than the sea
and extend over the land
‧ Intense _______________
( Lower / Higher ) air temperatures cells develop over the land
over the land

( Lower / Higher ) air density over the land Low-pressure belts are broken and
form low-pressure cells over the
( Low / High ) air pressure over the land __________________

G What is the world wind pattern?

1 Figures 13a and 13b show the world wind pattern in July and January respectively.

Figure 13a World wind pattern in July

28
Figure 13b World wind pattern in January
a Refer to Figures 13a and 13b. What do you notice about the relationship between the
direction of the prevailing winds and air pressure cells?

The prevailing winds blow from cells to cells.

b Compare world wind patterns shown in Figures 13a and 13b with planetary wind system
shown in Figure 9.
The world wind pattern is quite different from the planetary wind system. The
seasonal change of the overhead sun and the effect of land and sea disturb the pattern of air
pressure belts. This affects the pattern of the world winds.

29