Communication Lab (BECL404) 1

CMR INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

COMMUNICATION LAB (BECL404) MANUAL

IV SEM (2022 SCHEME)

CMR Institute of Technology

#132, AECS Layout, IT Park Road, Bengaluru – 37 www.cmrit.ac.in

CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560037 Dept. of ECE

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COMMUNICATION LAB (BECL404)

IV SEM (2022 Scheme)

Page
S.No. Experiments
No.
Design and test a high level collector modulator circuit and demodulate the signal using
1 3
diode detector.
2 Test the Balanced Modulator/ Lattice Modulator (Diode ring). 10
Design a Frequency modulator using VCO and FM demodulator using PLL (Use IC
3 17
566 and IC 565).
4 Design and plot the frequency response of Preemphasis and Deemphasis circuits. 22

5 Design and test BJT/FET Mixer. 28

6 Design and test Pulse Sampling, Flat Top Sampling and Reconstruction. 32

7 Design and test Pulse Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation. 37

8 Generation and Detection of Pulse Position Modulation. 43

9 Generation and Detection of Pulse Width Modulation. 46

10 PLL Frequency Synthsesizer. 49

11 Data Formatting and Line Code Generation. 52

12 PCM Multiplexer and Demultiplexer. 57

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Expt. 1: Design and test a high level collector modulator circuit and
demodulate the signal using diode detector.

Aim: To design and test a high level collector modulator circuit and demodulate the signal
using diode detector.

Components Required :
Transistor, IFT, resistors, capacitors, potentiometer, signal generator, dc source, breadboard,
connecting wires and CRO.

Introduction :
Modulation is the process of varying some characteristics of a carrier signal in accordance with the message
signal. Compared to the direct transmission of messages, modulation provides several advantages such as
reducing the height of the antenna, better utilization of the channel and multiplexing. In amplitude modulation,
the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the message signal. The equation of the standard
amplitude modulated (AM) signal is given by

𝑠1 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) . . . (1)

where, 𝑠1 (𝑡) is the modulated signal, 𝑚(𝑡) is the message signal, 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) is the carrier signal and 𝑘𝑎 is
the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator expressed in per Volt. Here, carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 is much higher than
the highest frequency component in the message signal. For faithful modulation, 0 < |𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)| < 1. Amplitude
modulation is the least complex and the least expensive of all modulation schemes. However, it is also the least
efficient in terms of power and bandwidth utilization.
Expanding Eq. (1), we get
𝑠1 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) . . . (2)

Note that, in Eq. (2), the first term represents the carrier signal which conveys no useful information. Only the
second term depends on the message signal 𝑚(𝑡). Hence, standard AM results in waste of transmitted power.
This can be avoided by suppressing the carrier part in the modulated signal which results in Double Sideband
Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation. DSBSC modulated signal is given by Eq. (3).

𝑠2 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) . . . (3)

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DSBSC modulation is more power efficient than standard AM. But this advantage comes with increased system
complexity.
It is possible to vary the class C amplifier output proportional to the modulating signal applied to the base
terminal of the transistor (Figure 2.9). The capacitor Cc does the ac coupling of the modulating signal to the
base. Class-C amplifier using NPN transistor conducts current only in the positive half of the input signal. Tank
circuit generates the negative half cycle. Circuit generates a carrier frequency of 455kHz since an Intermediate
Frequency Transformer (IFT) tuned to 455 KHz is used as the tank circuit. Potentiometer R and Capacitor C are
used to fine tune the parameters of the tank circuit for sustaining the oscillation.
Emitter, base or collector modulations are possible by applying the modulating signal to emitter, base or
collector respectively.

Circuit Diagram : (To be drawn on the unruled page of the record)

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Fig. 2. Amplitude Demodulator

For amplitude demodulator :

1 1
< 𝑅𝐶 <
𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑚

Choose 𝐶 = 0.1 𝜇𝐹. Then for 𝑓𝑐 = 1.5 𝐾𝐻𝑧 and 𝑓𝑚 = 100 𝐻𝑧,

6.6 𝐾Ω < 𝑅 < 100 𝐾Ω

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Observations and Calculations :

For standard amplitude modulated wave,

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =

𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 =

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝜇 =
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛

Result:
Standard AM modulation and demodulation were performed using discrete components.
For standard AM, modulation index was found to be . . .

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Expt.2 : Test the Balanced Modulator/Lattice Modulator (Diode Ring)

Aim : To generate DSBSC signals using balanced modulator/lattice modulator
(diode ring).

Components Required :
4 - 100Ω Resistors
2 – 1kΩ Resistors
4 – 1N914 Diodes
2 - Two-triflar-winding Transformers (if available)

Theory :
In electronic communications, a balanced modulator is a circuit that produces
double-sideband suppressed-carrier (DSBSC) signals: It suppresses the radio
frequency carrier thus leaving the sum and difference frequencies at the output. The
output waveform lacks the carrier, but still contains all the information a traditional
AM signal has. This results in power saving during signal transmission.

One of the most prevalent balanced modulators is the Diode Ring Modulator,
otherwise known as Lattice Modulator. It comprises of four diodes originally
fashioned as a “ring”, thus the moniker, and input and output transformers. The
modulator has two inputs: a single frequency carrier and a modulating signal, which
can be a single frequency or a complex waveform. The carrier is applied at the
center taps of the input and output transformers and the modulating signal at the
primary of the input transformer. The output, however, is measured at the secondary
of the output transformer. Figure 1 shows the diode ring modulator in two different
circuit orientations.
Also, the diode ring modulator is one of the most extensively used circuits in
electronic communications. In addition to producing DSBSC signals, it is also used

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in frequency and phase modulation systems as well as in digital modulation

systems, such as PSK and QAM.

The orientation of the diodes in a ring modulator must not be mistaken with that of
a diode bridge rectifier. They may take the similar “ring” shape; however, the ring
modulator has all its diodes face either clockwise or counterclockwise while the
bridge rectifier has its diodes facing either left or right.

Operation
The diodes used in the diode ring modulator can either be silicon, silicon Schottky-
barrier or gallium-arsenide. They serve as switches that control whether the input
signal is passed with or without a 180° phase reversal. The carrier signal is the one
that sets the diodes on and off at a high rate of speed. It is important to know that
for the modulator to operate, the carrier’s amplitude must be adequately greater than
the modulating signal’s, about six to seven times greater.

Figure 2. Positive Half-cycle Operation

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During the positive half-cycle, D1 and D2 are forward biased and on, and D3 and
D4 are reverse biased and act as open circuits. The carrier current is then equally
divided at the center tap of the input transformer’s secondary and flows in opposite
directions through the upper and lower halves of the winding. The currents in the
upper and lower parts each produce a magnetic field that is both equal and opposite
with each other therefore, the magnetic fields produced cancel out and the carrier is
suppressed. Thus, the modulating signal is passed from the input to the output
transformers through D1 and D2 without phase reversal. Figure 2 shows the
positive half-cycle operation of the modulator.

Figure 3 illustrates the negative half-cycle operation of the diode ring modulator.
Diodes D1 and D2 are reversed biased and off while D3 and D4 are forward biased
and on. Again, the same thing happens to the carrier current. It splits equally in the
primary of the output transformer and both current produce magnetic fields equal
and opposite with one another. The two currents merge in the secondary of the input
transformer and the magnetic fields are canceled out, and the carrier is suppressed.
The modulating signal passes through the input transformer and undergoes a 180°
phase reversal before reaching the output transformer.

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Figure 3. Negative Half-cycle Operation

The figure below shows the waveforms of the diode ring modulator in a timing
diagram.

The output waveform of the diode ring modulator has the carrier signal suppressed
and is made up of the sum and difference of the input frequencies. They are RF
pulses that takes the shape and amplitude of the modulating signal at the rate of the
carrier signal. Ideally, the carrier signal is totally suppressed, however, this doesn’t
really happen. A small carrier component always goes with the output signal and
this is called a carrier leak. This happens for a few reasons: First, if the transformers
are not exactly center tapped; and second, if the diodes are not perfectly matched.

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Figure 4. Diode Ring Modulator Waveforms: (A) Modulating Signal, (B) Carrier
Signal, (C) DSBSC signal at the primary of the output transformer, (D) DSBSC
waveform after filtering.
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Circuit Diagram :

Figure 1. Diode Ring Modulator

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Result : The diode ring modulator circuit for generation of DSBSC signals was
tested successfully.

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Expt. 3 : Design a Frequency modulator using VCO and FM demodulator

using PLL (Use IC 566 and IC 565).

Aim of the experiment :

To demonstrate Frequency Modulation and Demodulation using PLL IC 565.

Components and Equipments Required :

IC 565, resistors, capacitors, dc source, signal generator, breadboard, connecting wires and
CRO.

Theory :
In frequency modulation, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier signal is varied linearly with the amplitude
of the message signal. The FM signal is described by Eq. (1).
𝑡
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫0 𝑚(𝜏)𝑑𝜏) . . . (1)

where 𝑘𝑓 is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator expressed in Hz per Volt. Note that the envelope of the
FM signal is constant unlike AM wave. If we let 𝑚(𝑡) to be 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡), then FM signal becomes

𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)) . . . (2)
𝑓𝑚

We call 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 = ∆𝑓 as frequency deviation which represents maximum departure of the instantaneous

∆𝑓
frequency of the FM signal from the carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 . We call 𝑓 = 𝛽 as modulation index. Then, Eq. (2)
𝑚

can be written as

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + βsin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)) . . . (3)

The parameter 𝛽 represents the phase deviation of the FM signal and it is measured in radian. When 𝛽 is small
compared to 1 radian, the FM signal is called narrowband FM. When 𝛽 is large compared to 1 radian, the FM
signal is called wideband FM. In theory, FM signal has infinite bandwidth. But for practical purposes, we can
make use of Carson’s rule to find the effective bandwidth of FM signal as follows.

𝐵 = 2(∆𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚 ) . . . (4)

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Compared to AM signal, FM signals have better noise performance. But this advantage comes with higher
transmission bandwidth.

Circuit Diagram : (To be drawn on the unruled page of the record)

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Expt. 4: Design and plot the frequency response of Preemphasis and

Deemphasis circuits.

Aim of the experiment :

To design and plot the frequency response of Preemphasis and Deemphasis circuits.

Theory :
Pre-emphasis refers to boosting the relative amplitudes of the modulating voltage for higher
audio frequencies from 2 to approximately 15 KHz. De-emphasis means attenuating those
frequencies by the amount by which they are boosted. However, pre-emphasis is done at the
transmitter and the de-emphasis is done at the receiver. The purpose is to improve the signal-to-
noise ratio for FM reception. A time constant of 75µs is specified in the RC or L/Z network for
pre-emphasis and de-emphasis.

Pre-Emphasis:

Applies a high-pass filter to the signal before transmission

Boosts or amplifies the high-frequency components
Commonly boosts frequencies above 2-3 kHz
Provides up to 10 dB of gain to high frequencies
Done prior to transmission or recording
Takes advantage of high-frequency noise immunity

De-Emphasis:

Applies a low-pass filter to the received signal

Attenuates or reduces the boosted high frequencies
Rolls-off highs above 2-3 kHz
The reverse process of pre-emphasis
Provides gain reduction equal to the pre-emphasis
Restores original frequency spectrum
Reduces noise and distortion picked up during transmission

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The pre-emphasis stage selectively amplifies higher frequencies while de-emphasis selectively
reduces those same frequencies. This complementary process allows the highs to be transmitted
at stronger levels to overcome noise while being received at normal levels to maintain fidelity.
The goal is to improve the signal-to-noise ratio and overall listening experience. Careful
frequency selection and gain tuning are required to match the pre and de-emphasis for optimal
performance.

Pre-Emphasis:
Advantages:
Improves signal-to-noise ratio - Boosts high frequencies before transmission which are more
susceptible to noise
Increases transmission range - Pre-emphasis provides 6-10 dB gain allowing greater
transmission distance
Compatible with transmitter characteristics - Takes advantage of nonlinear compression in
transmitters
Reduces channel crosstalk - Attenuates lower frequencies to prevent crosstalk between channels
Disadvantages:
Increases transmit power - Requires more transmitter power to accommodate pre-emphasis
Susceptible to non-linearity - Can introduce distortion if pre-emphasis is applied incorrectly

De-Emphasis:
Advantages:
Restores original frequency response - Rolls-off highs to counteract effects of pre-emphasis
Reduces noise - Attenuates amplified high frequencies and the noise introduced during
transmission
Improves overall SNR - Combined pre-emphasis and de-emphasis give better SNR
Prevents adjacent channel interference - Reduces high frequencies that may cause interference
Disadvantages:
Requires complex circuitry - Needs tuned circuits or active filters to provide specific de-
emphasis
Risk of incorrect de-emphasis - Can further distort signal if de-emphasis doesn't match pre-
emphasis
So in summary, pre-emphasis and de-emphasis extend transmission range and improve SNR,
but require careful matching and tuning to prevent distortion.

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Key Applications Where Pre-Emphasis And De-Emphasis Are Used:

FM radio broadcasting - Pre-emphasis boosts high frequencies before transmission, while de-
emphasis is applied in receivers to reduce noise and distortion. This improves FM signal
quality.
Magnetic tape recording - Tape recording applies pre-emphasis to utilize the full dynamic
range, while playback applies de-emphasis to restore the original frequency response.
Disc recording technologies - Optical and magnetic discs like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray employ
pre-emphasis and de-emphasis to maximize SNR and minimize errors.
Microwave radio links - Pre-emphasis allows longer hops in microwave line-of-sight
communication links. De-emphasis restores the original spectrum.
Satellite communication - Pre-emphasis is applied to signals sent to communication satellites to
overcome noise in space. The satellite or receiver de-emphasizes the signal.
Telephony - Both cellular and landline telephony apply pre-emphasis to speech before
transmission and de-emphasis at the receiving end for clarity.
Professional wireless systems - Wireless microphones and in-ear monitors use pre-emphasis
and de-emphasis for clean audio over the radio.
HDTV broadcasting - Some HDTV standards have pre and de-emphasis circuits for luminance
and chrominance signals.
Dolby noise reduction - Dolby systems use a form of sliding pre and de-emphasis to attenuate
frequencies with less audio content, reducing noise.
So in summary, pre-emphasis paired with de-emphasis provides vital SNR enhancement in
many recording, broadcast, radio, and telephony applications.

Circuit Diagrams :

Pre-Emphasis Circuit

At the transmitter, the modulating signal is passed through a simple network that amplifies the
high frequency, components more than the low-frequency components. The simplest form of
such a circuit is a simple high-pass filter of the type shown in Fig (a). Specification dictates a
time constant of 75 microseconds (µs) where t = RC. Any combination of resistor and capacitor
(or resistor and inductor) giving this time constant will be satisfactory. Such a circuit has a

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cutoff frequency fco of 2122 Hz. This means that frequencies higher than 2122 Hz will be
linearly enhanced. The output amplitude increases with frequency at a rate of 6 dB per octave.
The pre-emphasis curve is shown in Fig (b). This pre-emphasis circuit increases the energy
content of the higher-frequency signals so that they will tend to become stronger than the high-
frequency noise components. This improves the signal-to-noise ratio and increases intelligibility
and fidelity.

The pre-emphasis circuit also has an upper break frequency fu where the signal enhancement
flattens out.

See Fig (b). This upper break frequency is computed with the expression.

fu = R1 +(R2/2πR1R1C)

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It is usually set at some very high value beyond the audio range. A fu of greater than 30KHz is
typical.

De-Emphasis Circuit

To return the frequency response to its average level, a de-emphasis circuit is used at the
receiver. This is a simple low-pass filter with a constant of 75 πs. See Figure (c). It features a
cutoff of 2122 Hz and causes signals above this frequency to be attenuated at the rate of 6bB
per octave. The response curve is shown in Fig (d). As a result, the pre-emphasis at the
transmitter is precisely offset by the de-emphasis circuit in the receiver, providing a normal

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frequency response. The combined effect of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is to increase the
high-frequency components during transmission so that they will be stronger and not masked by
noise.

Result : Preemphasis and Deemphasis were successfully completed and the required graphs
were achieved.

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Expt.05 : Design and Test BJT/FET mixer.

Aim of the experiment:

To design and setup a frequency converter circuit using transistors to produce an output
frequency of 455 kHz from two input frequencies.

Components and equipment required:

IFT, capacitors, resistors, transistor, dc source, signal generators, breadboard, connecting wires
and CRO.

Theory :

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Circuit Diagram:

Fig.1

(Or)

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Design:
For Fig.1
Assume C1 =0.1microfarad , Calculate value of L1 using
where f=7 KHz
L1 = 5.17 mH
For Fig.2.23

Procedure:
For Fig.1
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Apply the input signals
3. Note down the frequency of the output signal, which is same as difference frequencyof given
signals.

For Fig.2.23

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TABULAR COLUMN:
Parameter Input signal 1 Input signal 2 Output signal
Amplitude(V)
Frequency(Hz)

Waveforms :

Result:
BJT mixer was set up and the mixer output is verified. Output frequency of the mixer is _____
KHz.

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Expt. 06 : Design and test Pulse Sampling, Flat Top Sampling and Reconstruction.

Aim of the experiment :

To demonstrate pulse sampling, flat top sampling and reconstruction of the given bandlimited
signal.

Theory:
Sampling is the process of converting a continuous time signal into discrete time signal. It is the
first step in analog to digital conversion, the other two steps being quantizing and encoding.
Pulse sampling, also known as natural sampling can be accomplished by means of transistor
switching circuit. The switching speed of the transistor must be greater than Nyquist rate of the
message signal according to lowpass sampling theorem. In pulse sampling, the amplitude of the
sampled signal varies according to message signal during the on time of the switch. But for
further processing of samples, it is necessary to hold the sample value constant for some
duration. This is accomplished by flat top sampling using sample and hold circuit. The original
signal can be reconstructed by passing the sampled signal through a lowpass filter with cut-off
frequency equal to bandwidth of the message signal. The reconstructed signal could be slightly
different from the original signal due to lengthening of samples and due to non-availability of
ideal filters.

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Circuit Diagram : (To be drawn on the unruled pages of the record)

Fig. 1. Pulse Sampler (Natural Sampler)

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Fig. 2. Flat Top Sampler

Fig. 3. Reconstruction of the Message Signal

Circuit Design : (To be written on the unruled pages of the record)

To find 𝑅𝐵 , 𝑅𝐸 for pulse sampling :

Apply KVL to Collector-Emitter loop.

1.25 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸
At saturation,
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0.2 𝑉, 𝐼𝐸 = 1 𝑚𝐴 (From datasheet)
Therefore,

1.25 = 0.2 + 10−3 ∗ 𝑅𝐸

∴ 𝑅𝐸 = 1050 Ω

Now, apply KVL to Base-Emitter loop.

2.5 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸

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At saturation,

𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7 𝑉 (From datasheet)

𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝐸 1𝑚𝐴
𝐼𝐵 = ≈ = = 0.033 𝑚𝐴
𝛽 𝛽 30

(𝛽 = 30 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡)
Therefore
2.5 = 0.033 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 𝑅𝐵 + 0.7 + 10−3 ∗ 1050

∴ 𝑅𝐵 ≈ 22 𝑘Ω

For reconstruction :
1
= 𝑓𝑚
2𝜋𝑅1 𝐶1

Choose 𝐶1 = 0.1 𝜇𝐹.

For 𝑓𝑚 = 100 𝐻𝑧,

1
𝑅1 =
2𝜋𝐶1 𝑓𝑚

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Waveforms :

Result:
Pulse sampling, flat top sampling and reconstruction were performed using discrete components.

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Expt.No.07 : Design and test Pulse Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation.

Aim : To design, set up and study the working of pulse amplitude modulator and demodulator
circuits.

Components and Equipment Required :

IC 4016, JFET, Resistors, Capacitors, Signal Generators, Breadboard, Connecting Wires and
CRO.

Theory :

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Design :

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Result : PAM modulator and demodulator circuits were rigged up and waveforms
were observed successfully.

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Expt.No.08 : Generation and Detection of Pulse Position Modulation.

Aim : To design, set up and study the working of a Pulse Position Modulator (PPM).

Components and Equipment Required :

IC555, resistors, capacitors, diode, dc source, signal generator, breadboard, connecting wires
and CRO.

Theory :

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Circuit Diagram :

Procedure :

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Result :

Designed and studied a PPM circuit and observed its waveforms successfully.

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Expt.No.09 : Generation and Detection of Pulse Width Modulation.

Aim : To design , setup and study a Pulse Width Modulator using opamp.

Components and Equipment Required :

IC741, resistors, capacitors, potentiometer, dc source, signal generator, breadboard, connecting
wires and CRO.

Theory :

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CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560037 Dept. of ECE

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Results :

Successfully studied a PWM circuit and observed its waveforms.

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Expt.No.10 : PLL Frequency Synthesizer.

Aim : To design, setup and study the working of a frequency multiplier using PLL
chip to multiply the input frequency by a factor N.

Components and Equipment Required :

PLL IC 565, IC 7490, resistors, capacitors, dc source, signal generator, breadboard,
connecting wires and CRO.

Theory :

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Result :
Designed and set up a frequency multiplier (synthesizer) using PLL IC 565 and
studied its functioning.

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Expt.No.11 : Data formatting and Line Code Generation.

Aim :
1) To perform Manchester coding on a given input sequence.
2) To perform differential coding on a given input sequence and to obtain the
decoded output.

Components and Equipment Required :

IC 741, IC 7474, IC 7486, resistors, dc source, signal generator, breadboard,
connecting wires and CRO.

Theory :

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7486 (X- OR Gate)

7474 (D Type – Flip Flop )

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Result:
Designed and setup Manchester and Differential techniques of line coding and
studied its functioning by observing the output waveforms.

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Expt. 12: PCM

Aim of the experiment:
To study pulse code modulation and demodulation using trainer kit.

Components: Trainer Kit, DSO

Introduction:
In pulse code modulation (PCM) a message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which is
accomplished by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude. The basic elements of a
PCM system are shown below.
The basic operations performed in the transmitter of a PCM system are sampling, quantizing and encoding. The
low pass filter prior to sampling is included to prevent aliasing of the message signal. The incoming message
signal is sampled with a train of narrow rectangular pulses so as to closely approximate the instantaneous
sampling process. To ensure perfect reconstruction of the message signal at the receiver, the sampling rate must
be greater than twice the highest frequency component W of the message signal in accordance with the
sampling theorem. The quantizing and encoding operations are usually performed in the same circuit, which is
called an analog-to-digital converter. The same circuit, which is called and analog-to-digital converter. The
sampled version of the message signal is then quantized, thereby providing a new representation of the signal
that is discrete in both time and amplitude. In combining the process of sampling and quantization, the
specification of a continuous message (baseband) signal becomes limited to a discrete set of values, but not in
the form best suited to transmission. To exploit the advantages of sampling and quantizing for the purpose of
making the transmitted signal more robust to noise, interference and other channel impairments, we require the
use of an encoding process to translate the discrete set of sample values to a more appropriate form of signal.

The basic operations in the receiver are regeneration of impaired signals, decoding and reconstruction of the
train of quantized samples. The first operation in the receiver is to regenerate (i.e., reshape and cleanup) the
received pulses one last time. These clean pulses are then regrouped in to code words and decoded into a
quantized PAM signal. The decoding process involves generating a pulse, the amplitude of which is the linear
sum of all the pulses in the code word. The final operation in the receiver is to recover the message signal by
passing the decoder output through a low pass reconstruction filter whose cut-off frequency is equal to the
message band width W. Assuming that the transmission path is error free, the recovered signal includes no
noise with the exception of the initial distortion introduced by the quantization process.

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Circuit Connections:

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Pulse Code Modulation Advantages

Pulse Code Demodulation

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Procedure:
1. Switch ON Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation Trainer Kit.
2. Connect the variable DC O/P to the Analog I/P of modulation section.
3. Vary the VR-7 DC source and observe the PCM waveform on CRO. And also observe the
LED representation of A/D output.
4. Connect the AF output to Analog I/P of modulation section. Here you can vary the amplitude
and frequency of a sine wave.
5. Connect the CRO probe to TP2 S/H to see the sampled signal and also TP4 to see the
quantized output.
6. Connect the PCM O/P to PCM I/P of demodulation section.
7. Observe the DAC O/P at TP23 and also demodulated signal output at TP25
Conclusion:
Pulse code modulation and demodulation schemes were verified using trainer kit.

CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560037 Dept. of ECE