Data Structures using C++

Unit 4

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Unit 4 Topics

TREES & GRAPHS

● Trees: Introduction, Terminology, Representation of Trees, Binary Trees, The
Abstract Data Type, Properties of Binary Tress, Binary Tree Representations, Binary
Tree Traversal and Tree Iterators, Introduction, Inorder Traversal, Preorder Traversal,
Postorder Traversal.
● Binary Search Trees, Definition, ADT, Implementation, Operations‐ Searching,
Insertion and Deletion, AVL Trees, Definition, Height of an AVL Tree, Operations –
Insertion, Deletion and Searching.
● Graphs: Basic terminology, representation of graphs, graph search methods DFS,
BFS.

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Trees: Introduction

● A tree data structure is a hierarchical structure that is used to

represent and organize data in a way that is easy to navigate
and search.
● It is a collection of nodes that are connected by edges and has
a hierarchical relationship between the nodes.

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Trees can be represented in two ways as listed below:

1. Dynamic Node Representation (Linked Representation).

2. Array Representation (Sequential Representation).

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Basic Terminologies In Tree Data Structure:

• Parent Node: The node which is a predecessor of a node is
called the parent node of that node. {B} is the parent node
of {D, E}.
• Child Node: The node which is the immediate successor of a
node is called the child node of that node. Examples: {D, E} are
the child nodes of {B}.
• Root Node: The topmost node of a tree or the node which
does not have any parent node is called the root node. {A} is
the root node of the tree. A non-empty tree must contain
exactly one root node and exactly one path from the root to all
other nodes of the tree.
• Leaf Node or External Node: The nodes which do not have
any child nodes are called leaf nodes. {K, L, M, N, O, P, G} are
the leaf nodes of the tree.

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• Ancestor of a Node: Any predecessor nodes on the path of the

root to that node are called Ancestors of that node. {A,B} are
the ancestor nodes of the node {E}
• Descendant: A node x is a descendant of another node y if and
only if y is an ancestor of y.
• Sibling: Children of the same parent node are called
siblings. {D,E} are called siblings.
• Level of a node: The count of edges on the path from the root
node to that node. The root node has level 0.
• Internal node: A node with at least one child is called Internal
Node.
• Neighbour of a Node: Parent or child nodes of that node are
called neighbors of that node.
• Subtree: Any node of the tree along with its descendant.

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Types of Tree data structures:

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Basic Operation Of Tree Data Structure

• Create – create a tree in the data structure.

• Insert − Inserts data in a tree.
• Search − Searches specific data in a tree to check whether it is
present or not.
• Traversal:
• Preorder Traversal – perform Traveling a tree in a pre-order manner in the
data structure.
• In order Traversal – perform Traveling a tree in an in-order manner.
• Post-order Traversal –perform Traveling a tree in a post-order manner.

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Binary Trees

● The Abstract Data Type

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Binary Tree

● A binary tree is defined as a tree in which no node can

have more than two children. The highest degree of
any node is two. This indicates that the degree of a
binary tree is either zero or one or two

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Properties of Binary Trees

The following are some of the important properties of a binary

tree:
• A binary tree allows for a maximum of two children per node.
• The maximum number of edges between the root and a leaf
node determines the height of a binary tree.
• A binary tree can have a maximum of 2d nodes at depth d.
• A binary tree of height h can have a maximum of 2(h+1) –
1 nodes.
• In a binary tree, there can only be as many leaf nodes as
internal nodes plus one.

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Binary Tree Representations

A binary tree data structure is represented using two methods:

1. Array Representation
2. Linked List Representation

Array Representation

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Linked List Representation

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Use any below method to implement Nodes of tree

Method 1: Using "struct" to make user-defined data type
struct node {
int data;
struct node* left;
struct node* right;
};

Method 2: Using "class" to make user-defined data type

class Node {
public:
int data;
Node* left;
Node* right;
};

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Types of Binary Trees

There are several types of binary trees based on their properties-

● Binary Tree based on the number of children:
• Full Binary Tree
• Degenerate Binary Tree
• Skewed binary tree

● Binary Tree based on the completion of levels:

• Complete binary tree
• Balanced binary tree
• Perfect binary tree

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● A Binary Tree is a full binary tree if every node has 0 or 2

children.

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● A Degenerate (or pathological) tree is a tree where every

internal node has one child. Such trees are performance-wise
same as linked list. A degenerate or pathological tree is a tree
having a single child either left or right.
● Max nodes: h+1

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● A skewed binary tree is a pathological/degenerate tree in

which the tree is either dominated by the left nodes or the
right nodes.
● Max nodes: h+1

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● A complete binary tree is just like a full binary tree, but with
two major differences:
• Every level except the last level must be completely filled.
• All the leaf elements must lean towards the left.
• The last leaf element might not have a right sibling i.e. a
complete binary tree doesn’t have to be a full binary tree.

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● A Binary tree is a Perfect Binary Tree in which all the internal

nodes have two children and all leaf nodes are at the same
level.
● Max nodes: 2h+1 – 1

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● A Balanced Binary Tree is a type of binary tree in which the

difference between the height of the left and the right subtree
for each node is either 0 or 1.

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Applications of Binary Trees

Binary trees have a wide range of applications in computer science and other
fields:
• Expression evaluation: In order to evaluate arithmetic expressions, binary
trees are used.
• Data compression: The widely used data compression method known as
Huffman coding uses binary trees to describe the frequency of characters
in a message.
• Decision-making processes: Binary trees may be utilized in
decision-making procedures such as game trees and decision trees.
• Network routing: To effectively route packets via a network, network
routing methods use binary trees for the transfer of packet.
• Machine learning: Binary trees are utilized in machine learning
techniques like decision trees and random forests to model and classify
the data.

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Tree Traversal Techniques

● Unlike linear data structures (Array, Linked List, Queues,

Stacks, etc) which have only one logical way to traverse them,
trees can be traversed in different ways:

1. Depth First Search or DFS

1. Inorder Traversal
2. Preorder Traversal
3. Postorder Traversal
2. Level Order Traversal or Breadth First Search or BFS
3. Boundary Traversal
4. Diagonal Traversal

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● InOrder: (left,root, right): 25,12,30,19,36,15

● PreOrder: (root,left,right): 10,12,25,30,15,36
● PostOrder: (left,right,root):25,30,12,36,15,10

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Inorder Traversal of Binary Tree

Inorder traversal is defined as a type of tree traversal

technique which follows the Left-Root-Right pattern, such that:
• The left subtree is traversed first
• Then the root node for that subtree is traversed
• Finally, the right subtree is traversed

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Algorithm for Inorder Traversal of Binary Tree

Algorithm Inorder(tree)

1. Traverse the left subtree, i.e., call Inorder(left->subtree)

2. Visit the root.
3. Traverse the right subtree, i.e., call Inorder(right->subtree)

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Algorithm for Preorder Traversal of Binary Tree

Algorithm Preorder(tree)

1. Visit the root.

2. Traverse the left subtree, i.e., call Preorder(left->subtree)
3. Traverse the right subtree, i.e., call Preorder(right->subtree)

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Algorithm for Postorder Traversal of Binary Tree

Algorithm Postorder(tree)

1. Traverse the left subtree, i.e., call Postorder(left->subtree)

2. Traverse the right subtree, i.e., call Postorder(right->subtree)
3. Visit the root

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Construct Binary Tree from Inorder and Postorder Traversal

Algorithm: buildTree()
1. Pick an element from Preorder. Increment a Preorder Index
Variable (preIndex in below code) to pick the next element in
the next recursive call.
2. Create a new tree node tNode with the data as the picked
element.
3. Find the picked element’s index in Inorder. Let the index be
inIndex.
4. Call buildTree for elements before inIndex and make the built
tree as a left subtree of tNode.
5. Call buildTree for elements after inIndex and make the built
tree as a right subtree of tNode.
6. return tNode.

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Complexity Analysis
Time Complexity Analysis:
● In general, if we want to analyze the time complexity of a tree
traversal then we have to think in terms of the number of nodes
visited.
● Hence, if a tree has n nodes, then each node is visited only
once in traversal (inorder, preorder and postorder) and
hence the complexity of the inorder traversal of the binary tree
is O(n) .
Space Complexity Analysis:
● For a tree of height h, space complexity is O(h) since space
complexity of recursion is always the height / depth of
recursion.
● For skewed trees, the height of the tree may be equal to the
number of nodes in the tree, hence leading to an overall space
complexity of O(n)
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Binary Search Tree

● A Binary Search Tree is a data structure used in computer

science for organizing and storing data in a sorted manner.

● Each node in a Binary Search Tree has at most two children,

a left child and a right child, with the left child containing values
less than the parent node and the right child containing values
greater than the parent node.

● This hierarchical structure allows for

efficient searching, insertion, and deletion operations on the
data stored in the tree.

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BST: Search operation

1. First, compare the element to be searched with the root

element of the tree.
2. If root is matched with the target element, then return the
node's location.
3. If it is not matched, then check whether the item is less
than the root element, if it is smaller than the root element,
then move to the left subtree.
4. If it is larger than the root element, then move to the right
subtree.
5. Repeat the above procedure recursively until the match is
found.
6. If the element is not found or not present in the tree, then
return NULL.

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BST: Deletion Operation

In a binary search tree, we must delete a node from the tree

by keeping in mind that the property of BST is not violated. To
delete a node from BST, there are three possible situations
occur -
• The node to be deleted is the leaf node, or,
• The node to be deleted has only one child, and,
• The node to be deleted has two children

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Delete leaf node

● It is the simplest case to delete a node in BST. Here, we

have to replace the leaf node with NULL and simply free
the allocated space.

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Delete node that has only one child

● In this case, we have to replace the target node with its
child, and then delete the child node. It means that after
replacing the target node with its child node, the child node
will now contain the value to be deleted. So, we simply
have to replace the child node with NULL and free up the
allocated space.

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Delete a node that has two children

This case of deleting a node in BST is a bit complex among other two
cases. In such a case, the steps to be followed are listed as follows -
• First, find the inorder predecessor/successor of the node to be
deleted.
• After that, replace that node with the inorder predecessor/successor
until the target node is placed at the leaf of tree.
• And at last, replace the node with NULL and free up the allocated
space.
Note: We can obtain the inorder successor by finding the minimum
element in the right child of the node and the inorder predecessor by
finding the maximum element in the left child.

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BST: Insertion operation

● A new key in BST is always inserted at the leaf.

● To insert an element in BST, we have to start searching
from the root node; if the node to be inserted is less than
the root node, then search for an empty location in the left
subtree.
● Else, search for the empty location in the right subtree and
insert the data. Insert in BST is similar to searching, as we
always have to maintain the rule that the left subtree is
smaller than the root, and right subtree is larger than the
root.

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AVL Tree

● An AVL tree is defined as a self-balancing Binary Search Tree

(BST) where the difference between heights of left and right
subtrees for any node cannot be more than one.
● It is also known as Adelson-Velsky and Landis tree

● Each node is associated with a balance factor which is

calculated by subtracting the height of its right sub-tree from
that of its left sub-tree.

● Tree is said to be balanced if balance factor of each node is in

between -1 to 1, otherwise, the tree will be unbalanced and
need to be balanced.
● Balance Factor (k) = height (left(k)) - height (right(k))

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AVL tree
● If balance factor of any node is 1,
it means that the left sub-tree is
one level higher than the right
sub-tree.
● If balance factor of any node is 0,
it means that the left sub-tree
and right sub-tree contain equal
height.
● If balance factor of any node is
1, it means that the left sub-tree
is one level lower than the right
sub-tree.
● An AVL tree is given in the given
figure. We can see that, balance
factor associated with each node
is in between 1 Excellence
and and1.Service
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Graphs: Basic terminology

● Vertices & Edges
● Directed: initial node to terminal node
● Undirected
● Path: Sequence of nodes followed to reach TN from IN
● Closed Path: If TN=IN
● Cycle: No repeated edges or vertices except first and las vertices
● Connected graph: Some path exists between every 2 vertices. No ISOLATED
nodes

● Complete graph: Every node connected to all other nodes. Edges: n(n-1)/2
● Weighted graph: Assigned some value for cost of travelling edge
● Adjacent nodes: Nodes connected via an edge
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Graph Representation: Sequential

Adjacency Matrix: An adjacency matrix is a way of representing a graph as a
matrix of boolean (0’s and 1’s).
• If there is an edge from vertex i to j, mark adjMat[i][j] as 1.
• If there is no edge from vertex i to j, mark adjMat[i][j] as 0.
• If weighted the adjMat[i][j] =weight of edge

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● Adjacency Matrix for Weighted graph

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Graph Representation: Linked List

Adjacency List: An adjacency list is used in the linked representation to
store the Graph in the computer's memory. It is efficient in terms of storage
as we only have to store the values for edges.
○ Undirected: Sum of lengths of adjacency list equal to twice the
number of edges present
○ Directed: Sum of lengths=No of edges
○ Weighted: An extra field is added.

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● Adjacency List for Directed Graph

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Adjacency List for Weighted Graph

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Breadth First Search or BFS for a Graph

Breadth First Search (BFS) is a fundamental graph traversal algorithm. It involves
visiting all the connected nodes of a graph in a level-by-level manner.
○ Start from root node
○ Explore neighbouring nodes
○ Select new node, explore all unexplored nodes
○ Use Queue
○ To avoid processing same node, Keep track of visited and unvisited nodes

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Algorithm for BFS:

1. Initialization: Enqueue the starting node into a queue and

mark it as visited.
2. Exploration: While the queue is not empty:
2. Dequeue a node from the queue and visit it (e.g., print its value).
3. For each unvisited neighbor of the dequeued node:
2. Enqueue the neighbor into the queue.
3. Mark the neighbor as visited.
3. Termination: Repeat step 2 until the queue is empty.

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● Now, Queue becomes empty, So, terminate these process of

iteration.

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Depth First Search or DFS for a Graph

● Depth First Traversal (or DFS) for a graph is similar to Depth

First Traversal of a tree.
● The only catch here is, that, unlike trees, graphs may contain
cycles (a node may be visited twice). To avoid processing a
node more than once, use a boolean visited array. A graph can
have more than one DFS traversal.

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Now, Stack becomes empty, which means we have visited all the
nodes and our DFS traversal ends
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