Cell

Cell: It is the smallest unit of life capable of performing all living functions.

Properties of cell

The Cell is the smallest living unit of life.

It is so small that it is not visible to the naked eye.

The shape of the cell varies in different organisms and within an organism.

Size of cells also differs.

All living cells exhibit certain basic properties like respiration, growth,
metabolism etc.

Cells originate from a pre-existing cell. A mother cell divides to produce

daughter cells. Hence, cells exhibit cell division.

Milestones in Cell Biology

Biologists Major contributions

Robert Hooke Discovered cell
Leeuwenhoek Discovered microscope
Robert Brown Nucleus
Purkinje Coined term protoplasm
Schleiden and Schwann Presented Cell theory
Camillo Golgi First described Golgi apparatus

Invention of Microscope

The first, simple microscope was constructed by Antony van Leeuwenhoek. He

used biconvex lens to make the microscope.
The invention of compound microscope was done by Robert Hooke. These
compound microscopes consisted of concave lens.
 The modern compound microscopes are a modification of one made by Robert
Hooke. Their magnification power has been improved up to 2,000 times.
Electron microscopes are the one that use electronic beams to magnify the
objects. Their magnification power is over 2,00,000 times.

Cell theory

All plants and animals are composed of cells

The cell is the basic unit of life.
This was further expanded by Virchow by suggesting that all cells arise from
pre-existing cells.

Classification of Cell on the basis of their cellular complexity

Prokaryotic cell -

1. The nuclear region is poorly defined; membrane-bound organelles are absent.

The undefined nuclear region containing only nucleic acid called nucleoid.
2. Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms, while eukaryotes are usually
multicellular organisms. Yeast is exceptionally a unicellular eukaryote.

Eukaryotic cell

1. Nuclear region is well defined, bounded by nuclear membrane. Other

membrane-bound organelles are also present.

Components of the cell

Cell membrane
It is the protective layer that surrounds the cell.
Cell membrane selectively allows the entry of only some substances and
prevents the movement of other materials. Hence, it checks the transport
of substances in and out of the cell.
Cell wall
In plants, an extra protective covering of a polysaccharide, cellulose is
present.
It is called cell wall that protects plant cells from environmental
variations.
Cytoplasm
It is a jelly-like substance present between cell membrane and nucleus.
It contains various cell organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi bodies,
lysosomes etc.
Nucleus
It is a dense spherical body located at the centre of the cell.
It is surrounded by porous nuclear membrane.
It contains spherical body called nucleolus.
It also contains thread-like structures called chromosomes.
Chromosomes are the structures that carry genes and play an important
role in inheritance.
Genes are the structural and functional unit of inheritance.
The entire living substance in a cell is known as protoplast.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles are fluid-filled membrane-bound structures in the cell.
In plant cells, a single large vacuole is present.
In animal cells, numerous small vacuoles are present.
Plastids
 They are present only in plant cells.
Plastids that contain green colour pigment chlorophyll are known as
chloroplasts. It is the chlorophyll that gives green colour to the leaves.
Chloroplast traps solar energy and utilizes this energy to manufacture food
for the plant.

Vacuoles

1. Vacuoles are fluid-filled membrane-bound structures in the cell.

2. In plant cells, a single large vacuole is present.

3. In animal cells, numerous small vacuoles are present.

4. The membrane of the vacuole is called tonoplast. This membrane encloses a

fluid called cell sap.

Plastids

1. They are present in plant cells.

2. Chloroplast is a plastid containing green pigment called chlorophyll that is

required in photosynthesis.

3. Plastids are of two types – leucoplasts and chromoplasts

4. Leucoplasts are colourless and are used to store food while chromoplasts are
plastids containing pigments. Chloroplasts are a type of chromoplasts.

5. Chloroplasts consist of two regions – grana (stacks of sac like membrane bound
structures that contain pigment chlorophyll) and stroma (ground substance
containing enzymes and starch grains)

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

They are of two types:

1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is important for synthesis and packaging

of proteins.

2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) acts as storage organelle. It also helps

in lipid (fat) synthesis.
 Golgi Apparatus

1. It is made up of parallel arranged membrane-bound vesicles called cisternae.

2. It helps in storage, modification, and packaging of products in vesicles.

3. It helps in formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Lysosomes

1. It is a membrane-bound structure that holds variety of enzymes.

2. Rich in all types of hydrolytic enzymes, which are active at acidic pH.

3. It is involved in the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic

acids.

Mitochondria

1. It is a double membrane-bound structure.

2. The inner membrane of mitochondria is deeply folded to form cristae.

3. Cristae increase the surface area in the organelle.

4. It is the site of cellular respiration and hence known as ‘power house of cell’.

5. They have their own circular DNA.

6. They divide by fission.

Organelles visible under compound microscope

Cell wall - Outermost structure present in plant, fungal, and some bacterial
cells; it is absent from animal cells

Plasma membrane or cell membrane - Covering of the cell, separating the

contents of the cell from the external environment

Important functions of cell membrane:

1. Regulates the entry and exit of substances in and out from the cell

2. Performs certain physical activities such as diffusion and osmosis

 Cytoplasm - Fluid that fills the cell; contains all cell organelles. It is
amorphous, translucent, colloidal fluid. Organic molecules and enzymes float in
it. It helps in exchange of materials between the cell organelles.

Nucleus - Controls all the cellular activities of the cell; acts like the brain of a
cell

Important components of nucleus:

1. Nuclear membrane

2. Nucleoplasm, containing chromatin

3. Nucleolus

Vacuole - Found in both plant and animal cells. Provide turgidity and rigidity to
plant cells and store the waste products of a cell

Endoplasmic reticulum – interconnected system of membrane lined channels

that run throughout the cytoplasm and helps in the synthesis and packaging of
proteins and lipids

Two types:

1. SER - Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

2. RER - Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Ribosome - Site of protein synthesis. They may be found free in the cytoplasm
or attached to the RER.

Golgi apparatus - Also known as dictyosomes in plant cells. It helps in the

storage, modification, and packaging of products in vesicles and is involved in
the formation of lysosomes and peroxisomes

Lysosome - Contains digestive enzymes which can destroy any foreign

material; also known as the ‘suicidal bag’ of a cell

Mitochondria - Also known as the ‘powerhouses of the cell’. Involved in

cellular respiration and production of energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate)

Plastids - Present in plant cells

Two types:

1. Chromoplasts (coloured plastids) - Include chloroplasts which are important

for photosynthesis in plants

2. Leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids) - Help in the storage of

carbohydrates (starch), fats, and proteins
 Structure of Chromosomes, Cell Cycle & Cell Division

Nucleus
It controls all the cellular activities of cell.
It consists of the following.
a. Nuclear membrane – It has perforations called nuclear pores.
b. Nucleoplasm
c. Nucleolus
Nucleolus is the site of ribosomal RNA formation.
Network of nucleoprotein fibres are called the chromatin.
Chromatin contains DNA, histones (basic proteins), non-histone proteins,
and RNA.
Chromatin threads condense and organize to form chromosome.
The primary constriction in the chromosome is called centromere.

Based on the position of centromere, chromosomes are of four types:

Metacentric: Centromere is located at the middle of chromosome.
Sub-metacentric: Centromere is slightly away from the middle of
chromosome.
Acrocentric: Centromere is situated close to the end of chromosome.
Telocentric: Centromere is located at the terminal end.

A small chromosomal segment separated from the main body of the chromosome
by a secondary constriction is called satellite.
Structure of DNA
It has a double-helix structure, similar to ladder.
It is made up of nucleotides.
Nuclotides are made of sugar, phosphate groups and nitrogen bases
Components of DNA
Sugar
Phosphate groups
Nitrogen bases
Genes
It is a unit of DNA.
Located on Chromosomes.
Controls the development of one or more traits.
It is the basis of Inheritrance.
It can acquire mutation leading to variation.
Cell cycle
It is defined as a series of events that takes place in a cell, leading to the
formation of two daughter cells.
The average duration of a cell cycle for a human cell is about 24 hours and
for yeast cell, it is about 90 minutes
Cell cycle is divided into two basic phases: Interphase and M phase

Interphase
Interphase involves a series of changes that prepares the cell for division. It
involves the period of cell growth and DNA replication in an orderly manner.

It is divided into three phases:

G1 phase – It involves growth of cell and preparation of DNA replication.
S phase – It involves DNA replication. The amount of DNA doubles, but the
chromosome number remains the same.
G2 phase – It involves protein synthesis and further growth of cell, which prepares
it for division.
G0 phase or quiescent phase – It is the stage when metabolically active cell
remains quiescent for long period of time.

Significance of Cell Division

It is the mean of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms.

It is essential for the growth of a single celled zygote into a whole new
multicellular organism.
It helps in the repair of injuries and worn out tissues.
It replaces dead cells of the body and thus is essential for growth
of organism.
In sexual reproduction, meiosis occurs. This type of cell division not only
results in production of gametes, but also brings new combinations of genes,
thus resulting in variations among a population. This also leads to evolution
of a species.

Mitosis
It is a process of cell division where chromosomes replicate and get equally
distributed into two daughter cells. Hence, it is also called equational
division.
The process of mitosis keeps the chromosome number equal in daughter as
well as parental cell.
Mitosis usually takes place in somatic cells.
Mitosis involves four stages:
Prophase
It involves initiation and condensation of chromosomes.
 Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
Metaphase
Chromosomal material condenses to form compact chromosomes that get
aligned in the middle of nucleus at equatorial plate.
Anaphase
Centromere splits and chromosomes move apart towards two opposite poles
due to shortening of spindle fibres
Telophase
Chromosomes finally reach their respective poles.
Nuclear envelope assembles around each chromosome cluster.
Nucleolus and other organelles reform.

Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis

Karyokinesis is the division of nucleus during mitosis or meiosis that is
followed by cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis involves the division of cytoplasm of a cell.
Cytokinesis is achieved in animal cell by cleavage that deepens and divides
the cell into two.
It is achieved in plant cell by cell plate formation.
When karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis, a multinucleate condition
arises. This is called syncytium.

Significance of mitosis
It results in the formation of diploid daughter cells with identical genetic
material.
Mitosis plays a significant role in cell repair, growth, and healing.

Meiosis

It is a type of cell division that produces sex cells or gametes.

It occurs in the reproductive organs.

Significance of meiosis:

Chromosome number is halved.

It helps in mixing up of genes.

Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
It occurs in the body cells It occurs in the reproductive cells during
throughout the life. reproductive age.
Parent chromosome and daughter Parent chromosome and daughter cell genes are
cell genes are identical. randomly assorted causing genetic variation.
It helps in growth and replacement. It helps in gamete formation.
Full set of chromosome is passed. Only half of the total chromosomes is passed.
Two daughter cells are formed. Four daughter cells are formed.
Single nuclear division occurs after Double nuclear division occurs after duplication of
duplication of chromosome. chromosome.
 Genetics

Genetics: It is the branch of science that deals with the principles of inheritance
and its practices.

Mendel was the first to carry out the study on the transmission of characteristics
from parents to offspring.

Mendel proposed that heredity is controlled by genes.

Mendel’s law of inheritance

Mendel experimented on garden pea plant (Pisum sativum) having many visible
contrasting characters.

He used seven contrasting pairs of characters or traits in garden pea.

Trait Dominant trait Recessive trait

Seed shape Round Wrinkled
Seed colour Yellow Green
Flower colour Violet White
Pod shape Full Constricted
Flower position Axial Terminal
Stem height Tall Dwarf
Pod colour Green Yellow

Mendel crossed pea plants having these seven pairs of contrasting characters/traits
and produced offspring from them.

His experiments included three steps –

Selection of true breeding plants

Obtaining F1 plants by cross pollination

 Self pollination of F1 plants to obtain F generation

Important terms:

Genes: Functional unit of heredity

Alleles: Alternative forms of the same gene for example the gene for plant height
in pea plant has two alleles T or t

Phenotype: It is the physical expression of character for example tall and dwarf
plants

Genotype: It is the genetic constitution of an organism for example TT or Tt is

the genotype for tall plants while tt is the genotype for dwarf plants

Dominant: It is the charactertrait that is able to express itself over another

contrasting trait for example tall plant is dominant over dwarf plant

Recessive: It is the charactertrait that is unable to express itself over another

contrasting trait

Test cross: It is a cross between organisms with unknown genotype and recessive
parents This cross is used for determining whether the given individual has
homozygous or heterozygous genotype

Monohybrid cross: It is a cross between two parents that have one pair of
contrasting characters for example a cross between tall TT or Tt and dwarf tt
plants

The phenotypic ratio obtained in monohybrid cross is 3:1 while genotypic ratio is
1: :1

Based on observations on monohybrid crosses two laws were proposed –

1 First law or law of dominance: It states that only one parental trait gets expressed
in the F1 generation while both the traits get expressed in the F generation

aw of segregation: It states that two alleles segregate from each other when
characters are transferred from parents to offspring during reproduction

Dihybrid cross: It is the cross between two parents that have two pairs of
contrasting characters for example the cross between round yellow seed and
wrinkled green seeds

The phenotypic ratio obtained in dihybrid cross is 9:3:3:1

 n the basis of observation of dihybrid cross the law of independent assortment
was proposed

aw of independent assortment: It states that the members of different pairs of alleles

assort independently into gametes

Incomplete dominance

It is the phenomenon where one allele is incompletely dominant over the other
member of the allelic pair

Both phenotypic and genotypic ratios are the same in the case of incomplete
dominance ie 1: :1

Co-dominance

It is the phenomenon where both the alleles of a gene are eually dominant and get
expressed together in heterozygous condition for example AB blood group in
humans

Blood group AB is an example of multiple alleles

Sex determination

Female heterogamy: Presence of two kinds of sex chromosomes in the female

only one kind is present in the male for example birds the female has sex
chromosome while the male has sex chromosome

Male heterogamy: Presence of two kinds of sex chromosomes in the male only
one kind is present in the female for example humans Drosophila the female has
XX sex chromosome while the male has X sex chromosome

In humans the genetic make up of the sperm determines the sex of the baby The
genotype of male is X and the genotype of a female is XX

xamples of sex linked Genetic Disorders

Haemophilia – Sex-linked recessive disorder that affects the clotting of blood

Colour blindness – recessive X linked disease in which the person is not able to
differentiate between reo colours – red and green

Heredity - transmission of characteristics or traits from parents to offsprings

 Variations- difference among individuals of a species and also among offsprings
of same parents.
Variations are of two types- heritable and non-heritable.
Basis of heredity- each trait is influenced by both maternal and paternal DNA.

Mendel’s work

Proposed- heredity is controlled by factors. Factors are now called genes.

Performed experiments on garden pea (Pisum sativum)
Used seven contrasting pairs of characters or traits to study heredity.
Dominant trait- able to express itself over another contrasting trait
Recessive trait-unable to express its effect in the presence of a dominant trait
Mendel represented- dominant trait as upper case (e.g., T for tallness) and recessive
trait as lower case (e.g., t for shortness)
Homozygous- when the factors or genes of a trait are similar e.g., TT or tt
Heterozygous- when the factors or genes of a trait are different e.g., Tt
Genotype-genetic constitution of an organism e.g., pure tall- TT
Phenotype-observable traits or characteristics of an organism e.g., tallness,
shortness etc.
Genotypic ratio-expected ratio of genotypes produced by a particular cross
Phenotypic ratio-expected ratio of phenotypes produced by a particular cross
Monohybrid cross-involves only one pair of contrasting characters
Phenotypic ratio in monohybrid cross is 3:1
Dihybrid cross-involves two pairs of contrasting characters
Phenotypic ratio in dihybrid cross is 9:3:3:1

Stages of Mendel’s experiment

Selection of parents- true breeding with contrasting pairs of traits e.g., pure tall
(TT) and pure dwarf (tt) pea plants were selected
Obtaining F1 plants- F1 generation is the first filial generation, formed after
crossing desirable parents e.g., crossing pure tall (TT) and dwarf (tt) plants gives
heterozygous tall (Tt) F1 plants
Self-pollination of F1 plants- involves crossing F1 plants to obtain F2 plants

Dihybrid cross: It is the cross between two parents that have two pairs of
contrasting characters; for example, the cross between round yellow seed and
wrinkled green seeds.

The phenotypic ratio obtained in dihybrid cross is 9:3:3:1.

On the basis of observation of dihybrid cross, the law of independent assortment

was proposed.
Principles of Mendel

Each characteristic in an organism is represented by two factors

Two factors are - dominant and recessive
Two contrasting factors when present in an individual do not blend
When more than two factors are involved, they are independently inherited
Heredity occurs at cellular level
Inside the nucleus of a cell, heredity material is present in the form of DNA
DNA associates with proteins to form chromosomes
Every somatic (body) cell of the human body has 23 pairs (46) of chromosomes

Monohybrid cross: It is a cross between two parents that have one pair of
contrasting characters; for example, a cross between tall (TT or Tt) and dwarf (tt)
plants.

The phenotypic ratio obtained in monohybrid cross is 3:1 while genotypic ratio is
1:2:1.

Based on observations on monohybrid crosses, two laws were proposed –

1. First law or law of dominance: It states that only one parental trait gets expressed
in the F1 generation while both the traits get expressed in the F2 generation.

2. Law of segregation: It states that two alleles segregate from each other when
characters are transferred from parents to offspring during reproduction.

Dihybrid cross: It is the cross between two parents that have two pairs of
contrasting characters; for example, the cross between round yellow seed and
wrinkled green seeds.

The phenotypic ratio obtained in dihybrid cross is 9:3:3:1.

On the basis of observation of dihybrid cross, the law of independent assortment

was proposed.

Law of independent assortment: It states that the members of different pairs of alleles
assort independently into gametes.

Incomplete dominance

It is the phenomenon where one allele is incompletely dominant over the other
member of the allelic pair.

Both phenotypic and genotypic ratios are the same in the case of incomplete
dominance, i.e., 1:2:1.
Co-dominance

It is the phenomenon where both the alleles of a gene are equally dominant and get
expressed together in heterozygous condition; for example, ABO blood group in
humans.

Blood group ABO is an example of multiple alleles.

Sex determination
Female heterogamy: Presence of two kinds of sex chromosomes in the
female; only one kind is present in the male; for example, birds (the female
has ZW sex chromosome while the male has ZZ sex chromosome).
Male heterogamy: Presence of two kinds of sex chromosomes in the male;
only one kind is present in the female; for example, humans, Drosophila (the
female has XX sex chromosome while the male has XY sex chromosome).
In humans, the genetic make up of the sperm determines the sex of the baby.
Sex determination in honey bees
Show a special mechanism of sex determination called the haplo-diploidy.
Unfertilized eggs develop into males.
Fertilized eggs develop into females.
Sex-Linked Inheritance
The appearance of a trait because of the presence of an allele either on X
chromosome or Y chromosome is called Sex-linked Inheritance.
Diseases observed in X-linked Inheritance
Haemophilia
Colour-Blindness
Criss-Cross Inheritance
The transfer of a gene from mother to son or father to daughter is called as
criss-cross inheritance. For e.g. in X-chromosome linkage
 Absorption by Roots

Morphology
It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of external structures of plants and animals.
A plant consists of a root system (underground part) and a shoot system (above the ground parts).
Roots are the parts of the root system; and stem, leaves, flowers, and fruits are parts of the shoot
system.
Roots
It helps in anchoring plant and absorbing water and minerals.
Developed from the radicle part of a cotyledon
It consists of a region of meristematic activity covered by a root cap, a region of elongation, and a
region of maturation having root hairs.
Types of roots system:
1 Tap root system
It consists of a primary root that grows deep inside the soil.
It also bears lateral roots referred to as secondary and tertiary roots.
Example- Dicotyledons (mustard)
Fibrous root system
Primary root is short-lived and is replaced by a large number of secondary roots.
Example- Monocotyledons (wheat)
3 Adventitious roots
Roots arise from parts other than the radicle.
Example- Banyan tree

Root modifications
Prop roots – Example: banyan tree
Stilt roots – Example: maize and sugarcane
Pneumatophores (that helps in respiration) – Example: Rhizophora
Characteristics of Root for Absorbing ater
Enormous surface area
Root hairs containing cell sap at higher concentration
Thin walled root hairs

Translocation
It is a biological process that involves the transport of dissolved material within a plant.
It mainly occurs with the help of xylem and phloem.
The transport of food from leaves to other parts of plant occurs by phloem. Movement of food in
phloem is bidirectional.
The conduction of water and minerals from soil to the rest of the plant occurs by xylem. Movement
of water in xylem is unidirectional.
eed of ater and Minerals for Plants
eed of ater
For photosynthesis
For transpiration
For transportation
For mechanical stiffness
eed of Minerals
Needed as nutrients for the plants
For the synthesis of a variety of compounds and enzymes
Means of Transport
Diffusion
It is the spontaneous movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration.
It is a slow process and does not require any energy expenditure.
It does not require a semi-permeable membrane and can take place through any membrane along
concentration gradient.
Rate of diffusion is affected by
a. concentration gradient
b. membrane permeability
c. temperature
d. pressure
Facilitated diffusion
It involves the movement of molecule from the region of higher concentration to lower
concentration, mediated by a carrier (mainly protein) molecule.
Movement of molecules across membrane occurs without expenditure of energy.
Porins – They are large protein molecules that form pores in membranes of plastids, mitochondria,
and some bacteria
Porins allow the movement of small-sized proteins across membrane. Aquaporins are proteins,
which form a water-permeable channel.
Some protein molecules allow diffusion only if two molecules are present. Based upon the direction
which is followed by both molecules, the path can be of three types.
Symport – when both molecules cross the membrane in same direction
Antiport – when both the molecules move in the opposite directions
niport – when single molecule moves across a membrane independent of other molecule
Active transport
It involves the transport of molecules from a region of low concentration to a region of high
concentration with an expenditure of energy.
It is carried out by membrane proteins.

smosis
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion which involves the movement of water molecules from the
region of high concentration to the region of low concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane.
Semi-permeable membrane Selectively permeable membrane.
Types of Osmosis:
Endosmois
Exosmosis
Rate of osmosis is affected by
(i) pressure gradient
(ii) concentration gradient
Osmotic pressure is the hydrostatic pressure produced by a difference in concentration between
solutions on the two sides of a semi-permeable membrane.
Tonicity : Relative concentration of solution and its surroundings.
Isotonic solution: Solution that has the same salt concentration as the normal cells
Hypotonic solution: Solution that has lower salt concentration than the normal cells
Hypertonic solution: Solution that has higher salt concentration than the normal cells
Important terms : Flaccidity Turgidity Plasmolysis Deplasmolysisall Pressure
Plasmolysis
It is the contraction of cells within plants due to the loss of water through osmosis.
When cells are placed in hypertonic solution, a cell tends to lose water to the surrounding solution
due to exosmosis. The plasma membrane shrinks and the cell is said to be plasmolysed.
When cells are placed in hypotonic solution, cells get deplasmolysed (turgid) due to movement of
water into the cell from surrounding as a result of endosmosis.
Deplasmolysis
The opposite of plasmolysis.
If not dead, the protoplasm absorbs water
The cell swells up
Difference between Diffusion and smosis
Diffusion smosis

1 Movement of substances from higher concentration to lower Movement of selective substances thro
concentration. membrane.

2 It occurs in any medium It occurs in liquid medium.

3 It helps in equalising the concentration in the available space. It does not equalise the concentration

4 It does not depend on solute potential It depends on the solute potential.

Imbibition: It is a special type of diffusion which involves water absorption through colloids causing
tremendous increase in volume. For example: absorption of water by seeds and dry wood

ater movement
Root pressure
It is the positive pressure that develops in the roots of plants by active absorption of nutrients from
soil.
It pushes the water up to small heights.
Root pressure is linked to the phenomenon of guttation.
Guttation: It involves the loss of water in the form of liquid droplets through the vein endings of the
leaves.
Guttation occurs early in the morning and late in the evening when evaporation is low and root
pressure is high.
Transpiration Pull
Water transport in tall trees occurs by transpiration pull.
Transpiration pull is generated by transpiration. It is also called cohesion - tension - transpiration
pull model of water transport.
The ascent of xylem sap is dependent on three physical properties of water:
Cohesion
Surface tension
Adhesion
 Transpiration

Transpiration

It is the loss of water in the form of water vapour through stomata.

Types of Transpiration

Stomatal transpiration- Occurs through stomata

Cuticular transpiration- Occurs through surface of stem and leaves
Lenticular transpiration- Occurs through lenticels

Differences between Evaporation and Transpiration

Evaporation Transpiration
Loss of water from the surface in the form of water Loss of water from aerial parts of plants in the form of water
vapours vapours
Fast process Slow process
A physical change controlled by temperature and A partially physical and vital process controlled by various
pressure internal and external factors
Factors affecting Transpiration

External Factors:

Light
Wind Speed
Humidity
Temperature
Atmospheric pressure
Carbon dioxide

Internal Factors:
Water content of the leaves

Adaptations in Plants To Reduce Excessive Transpiration

Sunken stomata
Less stomata
Narrower leaves
Loss of leaves
Reduced exposed surface
Thick cuticle

Significance Of Transpiration

Helps in ascent of sap

Cools the internal temperature of plants
Distribution of water and minerals in plants

Experiments for Demonstration of Transpiration

Cobalt chloride paper is used to check transpiration. It is a blue coloured paper which on exposure to moisture, changes
its colour to pink.

Measurement of Transpiration
Two methods for measuring transpiration are :

Weighing Method
Potometer Method

Potometer is a device used to measure water intake by a plant; this intake is equal to the water loss through
transpiration. There are a number of designs of potometer that are used to measure transpiration. Some examples include
Farmer's potometer and Ganong's potometer (to measure rate of water intake), Darwin's potometer (to demonstrate the
suction force created by transpiration), Garreau's potometer (to demonstrate unequal transpiration from both the surfaces
of a dorsiventral leaf), etc.

Limitations of using potometer:

Introducing the air bubble is not an easy task.

The twig can die after sometime.
Changes in outside temperature can affect the position of air bubble in the capillary tube.
 Chemical Coordination in Plants

Plants respond to stimuli by showing movement.

Examples of movements in plants

When you touch a sensitive plant such as touch- me- not (Mimosa
pudica), the plant folds its leaves and droops.

When a seed germinates, the root grows down in the soil and the stem
grows up in the air.

In the first example, the plant shows movement by folding its leaves and
there is no growth involved.So,it is a Growth-independent movement.

In the second example, the seed germinates and shows directional

movement. The movement of the seedling is caused by growth. If the
seedling is prevented from growing, then it will not show any movement.
Thus, it is a Growth-dependent movement

Movement in Plants

Plants show tropic movement and nastic movement.

In tropic movement plant either moves towards or away from the stimulus.
The movement could be phototropic (towards/away from light), geotropism
(gravity stimulated), thigmotropism (touch stimulated) or hydrotropism
(moisture stimulated)

Nastic movements occur in response to environment stimulus but they are

different from the tropic movements since the direction of response is not
dependent on the direction of stimulus.
Nastic movements may be classified as thigmonastic, thermonastic and
photonastic.
Tropic movement

Directional movement of a specific part of the plant in response to an

external stimulus
Phototropism- response to light
Geotropism- response to gravity
Hydrotropism- response to water
Chemotropism- response to chemicals
Thigmotropism- response to touch

Hormones in plants

Growth and development in plants is possible because of plants hormones or

phytohormones
Auxin-growth of stem
Gibberellin- promote stem elongation
Cytokinin- promote cell division
Abscisic acid- promotes seed dormancy
Ethylene- regulates fruit ripening
 The Circulatory System

eed For transport Inside ur Body

Digestive System
xcretory System
ndocrine System
Respiratory System

Blood

Blood is a red-coloured fluid connective tissue.

It helps in transportation of nutrients and oxygen from one organ to another.

Functions of Blood

Transportation by blood
Transport of Digested Food
Transport of Oxygen
Transport of Carbon
Transport of Excretory material
Distribution of harmones from endocrine glands
Distribution of heat throughout the body.
Protection by blood
Formation of Clot in cases of cut
Preventing Blood loss
Protecting body from bacteria
Production of antitoxins and antibodies
Haemoglobin : The chief constituent of RBCs.These are present inside stroma - a
spongy body of RBCs.
Carbon monoxide Poisoning-Haemoglobin has high affinity towards carbon
monoxide as it forms a more stable compound carboxyhaemoglobinHbC

Blood comprises of plasma ( ) and formed elements (4 ).

Plasma is a straw-coloured viscous fluid.

Protein contribution in plasma is about 6- and the rest about 9-92 is water. Three

maor proteins present in plasma are: f ibrinogen, globulin and albumins – Maintain the
osmotic balance of the body.
 Plasma without the clotting factor is called serum

Formed elements: It comprises erythrocytes leucocytes and platelets

Erythrocytes (Red blood cells)

o Healthy adult man has about – millions of RBCsmm3 of blood

o It contains a pigment calledhaemoglobin that plays a role in transport of oxygen and

carbon dioxide

Increased Efficiency Of RBCs

The Mammalian red blood cells are more efficient as compared to others as they lack certain
cell organelles The factors that makes them more efficient are :

oss Of nucleus
oss Of mitochondria
No endoplasmic reticulum

eucocytes (white blood cells)

o Healthy adult man has about – BCs mm -3 of blood

Platelets (Thrombocytes)
o Blood contains about 1 – 3 plateletsmm 3
o It plays a role inblood clotting

Functions of eucocytes(WBCs)
The basic function of white Blood Cells is body defence
 Phagocytosis: This is a defence mechanism in which the WBCs engulfs the solid
substances like bacterias.
Inflammation: This occures with inury andinvasion of germs on them, these are taken
care by the WBCs by destroying the disease causing germs(phagocytosis)
Formation of Antibodies: These are produced by WBCs(lymphocytes) to kill or
neutralise the germs and poison from them.These are stimulated by introducing
weakned germs through vaccination.

Lymph

ymph is a colourless fluid that does not contain RBCs.

It transports nutrients from tissue cells to blood through lymphatic vessels.

It is responsible for the immune responses as it has specialized lymphocytes.

Blood Coagulation

Clotting is required to prevent excessive loss of blood from the body.

Blood clot formed by threads of fibrin in which formed elements are trapped
Prothrombin (inactive form) thrombin (active form)
Fibrinogen (inactive form) fibrin (active form)
Mechanism of coagulation is a cascade of reactions involving several clotting factors.
Calcium ions play an important role in blood clotting mechanism.
The clear liquid squeezed out of fabrin network is called Serum.

Blood groups
Human body contains four types of of blood groups – A B AB and

Antigens on Antibodies in
Blood group
RBCs plasma
A A Anti – B
B B Anti – A
AB A, B Nil
O Nil Anti – A, B
Person with blood group AB is known as universal recipient
Person with blood group is known as universal donor
Rh factor:
 Rh is an antigen antigen D found on surface of red blood cells
Presence of Rh factor indicates Rh individual
Absence of Rh factor indicates Rh- individual
Rh-incompatibility can be observed between Rh-negative blood of mother and
Rh-positive blood of foetus The condition is known as
erythroblastosis
foetalis.
Blood coagulation:
Platelets contain chemicals that help in clotting Clotting takes place through a
series of linked enzymatic reactions called cascade process
Calcium ion is important forclotting.
Circulatory System

Human circulatory system

Humans have a closed type of circulatory system

Human circulatory system consists of the heart blood vessels and circulating fluid ie
blood

Blood vessels

The three maor types of blood vessels are:-

Arteries that carry blood away from the heart

Veins that carry blood from tissues back to the heart
Capillaries that enable exchange of water and nutrients between blood and tissues
The capillaries can easily dilate called
Vasodilation and easily contract called
Vasoconstriction.

Functions Of Capillaries:

It allows the outward diffusion of xygen

It allows the BCs to sueeze out of capillary walls
It allows inward and outward diffusion of urea glucose harmones etc

Differences between Arteries and Veins

Arteries Veins
1 Carries blood towards organs and away Carries blood towards heart and away from
from heart organs
2. Carries fully oxygenated blood Carries deoxygenated and Co2 enriched
blood.
Blood flows with low pressure and
3. Blood flows with high pressure and jerks,.
smoothly.
4. Have no valves Have valves to prevent backflow of blood.
5. Walls are elastic. Walls are non-elastic.
6. Are Deeply placed. Are superficial.
7 Branched and decreases in size. Unites and increases in size
8. Can constrict and dilate Cannot constrict.
9. Have thick and muscular walls Have thin and less muscular walls.
10. Smallest artery is called arteriole Smallest vein is called Venules.

Structure of Heart

Heart

Human circulatory system comprises of heart, blood, and blood vessels (arteries, veins,
and capillaries).
Human heart is myogenic. It is because in human heart, contraction is initiated by sino-
atrial node (SA node).
Heart has four chambers – two atria (auricles) and two ventricles.
Tricuspid valve guards the opening between right atrium and right ventricle.
Bicuspid valve guards the opening between left atrium and left ventricle.
Semilunar valve guards the opening between right and left ventricles into pulmonary
artery and aorta respectively.
SA node initiates and maintains the auto-rhythmicity of heart. It is also known as
pacemaker of heart.
Flow of cardiac impulse:

Heart beats 70 – 75 times per minute on an average of 72 beats per minute.

Cardiac cycle: It is the complete cycle of events in heart that takes place between one
heart beat to the next.
It comprises three stages:

1. Atrial systole
 2. Ventricular systole
3. Cardiac diastole

Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped out by ventricles per minute.
Heart sounds

1. Lub is the first heart sound produced when tricuspid and bicuspid valves
are closed.
2. Dub is the second heart sound produced when semi-lunar valves are closed.

Human circulatory system

Human circulatory system comprises of heart, blood, and blood vessels (arteries, veins,
and capillaries).

Human heart is myogenic. It is because in human heart, contraction is initiated by

sino-atrial node (SA node).

Heart has four chambers – two atria (auricles) and two ventricles.

Tricuspid valve guards the opening between right atrium and right ventricle.

Bicuspid valve guards the opening between left atrium and left ventricle.

Semilunar valve guards the opening between right and left ventricles into pulmonary
artery and aorta respectively.

SA node initiates and maintains the auto-rhythmicity of heart. It is also known as

pacemaker of heart.

Flow of cardiac impulse:

SA node AV node Bundle of His Purkinje fibres

Heart beats 70 – 75 times per minute on an average of 72 beats per minute.

Cardiac cycle: It is the complete cycle of events in heart that takes place between one
heart beat to the next.

It comprises three stages:

Atrial systole
Ventricular systole

Cardiac diastole

Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped out by ventricles per minute.

Heart sounds

Lub is the first heart sound produced when tricuspid and bicuspid valves are closed.

Dub is the second heart sound produced when semi-lunar valves are closed.

lectrocardiograph CG

Electrocardiogram is the graphical representation of cardiac cycle produced by an

electrocardiograph.

P wave is of atrial origin.

R S T waves are of ventricular origin.

Double circulation

It is the process where blood passes twice through the heart during one complete
cardiac cycle.

It is seen in birds and mammals.

It is an efficient process that supplies oxygen to all body cells.

Blood is circulated to body tissues through systemic circulation and to the lungs
through pulmonary circulation

Portal Vein : A vein that starts and ends with capillaries.

A system of veins which collects blood from the digestive tract and passes it through
capillaries in the liver is called hepatic portal system.

Pulse
The distension felt because of the contraction of heart, eveytime when blood passes
through the arteries as they are elastic in nature is called Pulse.
Blood Pressure

The pressure exerted by blood through the arteries on their walls.

There are two limits to the blood pressur:
Systolic Pressureupper limit
Diastolic Pressurelower limit
The normal blood pressure for an adult is 120(systolic) and 80(diastolic)
 The Nervous System

Control and coordination

Working together of various integrated body systems in response to changes in the surrounding
for the maintenance of bodily functions is known as control and coordination
ervous system and endocrine system provide control and coordination in animals.

ervous system

eurons -functional units of the nervous system, conduct messages in the form of electrical and
chemical impulses
Neuron composed of cell body and dendrite, axon and nerve endings.

Types of neuron:-
Sensory neuron
Motor neuron
Relaying or intermediate neuron

erve: A nerve is a collection of nerve fibres (or axons) enclosed in a tubular medullary sheath.
This sheath acts as an insulation and prevents mixing of impulses in the adacent fibres.

Transmission of nerve impulse:

Under normal conditions, the outer side of the nerve fibre consists of positive charge as more Na
ions are present outside axon membrane. The neuron is then said to be in polarised state. On
stimulation, the membrane becomes more permeable and Na ions move inside causing
depolarisation. Such a region is known as excited region. The point of depolarisation behaves as
stimulus for the neighbouring area and this goes on. In the mean time, the previous area becomes
repolarised due to active transport (using ATP) of Na ions with the help of sodium pump.

Synapse- a small gap between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of the next neuron
Parts of the nervous system

Human nervous system divided into- central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord
PNS consists of the nerves that connects the CNS to different parts of the body
The Brain, spinal cord, and nerves are the important parts of the nervous system

Brain

The brain is enclosed in a bony box called the cranium and spinal cord is protected by vertebral
column.
The brain and spinal cord are externally covered by protective covering called meninges.
It is made up of three layers namely duramater outer layer , arachnoid middle laye r),
piamater inner lay er).
The space between meninges is filled by a watery fluid called cerebro- spinal fluid CSF .

Human brain is classified into- forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

Forebrain- It consists of cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus.

It has following functions:
It is the thinking part of the brain.
The forebrain has sensory regions that receive sensory impulses from various receptors.
 It has motor regions that control the movement of various muscles such as the leg
muscles
Cerebrum controls intelligence learning memory thinking and speech
Hypothalamus contains many areas that control things such as body temperature urge for
eating and drinking etc
Midbrain- It is mainly concerned with the sense of sight and hearing
Hindbrain- It consists of pons medulla and cerebellum
It has following functions:
Most of the involuntary actions such as heartbeat blood pressure movement of food in the
alimentary canal salivation etc are controlled by the midbrain and medulla of the
hindbrain
Cerebellum is responsible for voluntary actions and maintaining the posture and
euilibrium of the body

Spinal Cord

It is the continuation of the medulla oblongata and runs through the vertebral column
The spinal cord is made up of two similar halves fused together to form a central canal containing
the cerebrospinal fluid
The outer portion of the spinal cord is known as the
white matter which consists of nerve fibres
The inner portion contains the cell bodies of neurons and is known asgrey
the matter

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

AS comprises of sympathetic as well as parasympathetic nervous system

The general functions of the sympathetic division are concerned with preparing the body for
emergencies increased blood pressure and rate of heartbeat increased release of stored nutrients
increased respiration rate dilation of pupils whereas the parasympathetic division is primarily
involved with conserving energy and replenishing energy stores

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

PS comprises of cranial nerves and the spinal nerves

The details of cranial nerves are as follows

Number Name Nature Maor function

1 lfactory Sensory Smell
ptic Sensory Sight
3 culomotor Motor Movement of eyeball
Trochlear Motor Rotation of eyeball
Trigeminal Mixed Sensation of touch and taste
Abducens Motor Rotation of eyeball
Taste facial expression saliva
Facial Mixed
secretion neck movement
Auditory Sensory hearing euilibrium
 9 Glosso-pharyngeal Mixed Taste saliva secretion
Gastric and pancreatic secretion GI
1 Vagus Mixed
movement visceral reflexes
11 Spinal accessory Motor Muscle movement visceral reflex
1 Hypoglossal Motor Tongue movement

Spinal Nerves

Spinal nerves are the nerves originating from the spinal cord by means of two roots- a dorsal root
and a ventral root

All the spinal nerves are mixed nerves

Man has 31 pairs of spinal nerves which are again put into five different categories

1 Cervical pairs

Thoracic 1 pairs

3 Lumbar pairs

Sacral pairs

Coccygeal 1 pair

Three types of responses of the nervous system are-reflex action, voluntary action and
involuntary action
Reflex action
Sudden movement or response to a stimulus
ccurs in very short duration of time
Does not involve will or any thinking of brain
g If we touch hot plate we immediately pull our hand back
Voluntary action
Actions such as writing talking etc that can be controlled consciously
Involuntary action
Actions such as breathing digestion etc that cannot be controlled consciously

Reflex action –

It is an automatic action or response provoked by a stimulus

Reflex pathway is comprised of the following:

Receptor: It includes sense organs that receive stimulus
Sensory or afferent neuron: It conducts the nerve impulse from receptor to the
spinal cord or brain
Association neuron: It helps to transmit nerve impulse from sensory neuron to motor
neuron
Motor or efferent neuron: It transmits nerve impulse to the effector organs like
muscles or glands
 ffector: It includes muscles or glands where action takes place in response to
stimulus.

Sense rgans: Organs that helps us to be aware of our surroundings are known as sense organs.

Receptors: Any cell or tissue sensitive to a selective stimuli are called receptors.

ye

Composed of three layers:

utermost layer- sclera and cornea

Middle layer- choroid, ciliary body, iris
Innermost layer- retina, with rod cells and cone cells.

ust behind the iris, a transparent, biconvex, and elastic structure called lens is present.

Rods – Contain rhodopsin pigment that is highly sensitive to dim light

Cones – Contain iodopsin pigment that is sensitive to high intensity light. Cones are also
responsible for colour vision.

Blind spot – Area where photoreceptors such as rods and cones are absent

Fovea – Area that contains only cones. Vision is finest and sharpest in this zone.

Aueous chamber – Space between cornea and lens; contains aueous humour .

Vitreous chamber – Space between lens and retina; contains vitreous humour

Pupil regulates the amount of light entering into the eyes.

Specific abilities of eyes

Power of Accommodation
Stereoscopic Vision

Common Defects of ye

Defect Characteristic features

Myopia (short- In this, nearby things are visible clearly, but distant things become
sightedness) blurred.
Can be corrected using a concave lens

Hypermetropia In this, the nearby obects appear blurred while the distant obects are
(long- sightedness) clear.
Can be corrected using a convex lens
 Astigmatism neven curvature of the cornea is responsible for imperfect image of
the obects

Glaucoma The aueous humour is regularly supplied by arterial capillaries and

reabsorbed by venous capillaries of ciliary body

Presbyopia In this the lens loses its flexibility in older people and they are not able
to see nearby obects clearly

This defect is corrected by wearing spectacles with convex lens

Cataract The protein fibres in the lens degenerate and the lens becomes opaue
The person loses clarity in the vision

Suint In suint either both the eyes converge cross eye or diverge wide
eye

Colour blindness Person cannot differentiate between colours such as red and green

It occurs in the people with prolonged diabetes

The blood vessels of the retina may leak close up or begin to grow due
to diabetes
Diabetic retinopathy
The blood may enter the clear elly like fluid called vitreous humour
and make it opaue causing blindness

Ear

rgan for hearing and euilibrium

5/4/2020

Crista and macula are receptors of vestibular apparatus that are responsible for maintaining body
balance and posture.

Organ of corti is the main hearing structure of internal ear. It is located on basilar membrane that
has hair cells. The middle ear contains three small bones – malleus, incus, and stapes (arranged
from outside to inside).

Mechanism of hearing

Pinna collects sound waves and directs it towards ear drum

Transmission of vibrations towards fenestra ovalis through ear ossicles

Generation of sound waves in lymph

Ripple created in basilar membrane bends the hair cells (of organ of corti) against tectorial membrane

Sound waves converted into nerve impulses

Impulse carried to cortex of brain

Impulse analyzed and sound is recognized

Role of ar in balancing Body

When we turn our head

fluid inside the semicircular canals moves

pushing against the sensory hair cells

sending nerve impulse to brain --via auditory nerve

cells present in the semicircular canals are highly sensitive to dynamic equilibrium.

we are able to balance our body.

ose

It is the sense organ of smell.

Sensory receptors are present in the nasal cavity.
Sends impulses through olfactory nerve.

Skin

It is the sense organ for the sense of touch and feel.

Also protects the body.
Has two layers, epidermis and the dermis.
Has sweat glands, oil glands and hair follicles.

Tongue

It is the sense organ of taste.

Have taste buds to recognize tastes like sweet, sour, bitter and salty.
 The Excretory System

Excretory system- The organ system that performs the function of excretion is
known as the excretory system

Excretion – It is the process of removing harmful waste products produced in the

cells of living organisms
The excretory system in humans includes – a pair of kidneys a pair of ureters a
urinary bladder and a urethra

idney- It is the main excretory organ of the human body It plays an important
role in the formation of urine Human kidney produces about 1 – 1 L of urine in a
day The urine consists of 9 water urea and other waste products
It is divided into two layers - outer cortex and inner medulla
ephrons are the basic filtering units of the kidneys
The main components of a nephron are the glomerulus Bowmans capsule, and a
long renal tube
Ureter carries urine to the bladder
Urinary bladder collects and stores urine
Urethra carries urine out of the body

Dialysis- The process of removing wastes using an artificial kidney is called

dialysis

idney is divided into outer cortex and inner medullary region

The cortical portion that proects between the medullary pyramids are known
as columns of Bertini.

Nephrons are basic functional units of kidney

Malpighian body or renal corpuscle comprises of Bowman’s capsule and
glomerulus

Malpighian body, Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT), and Distal Convoluted

Tubule (DCT) are located in thecortical region of kidney

oop of Henles is found in the medullary region of kidney

Vasa recta – It is a loop of capillaries that runs parallel to Henle’s loop

Afferent arteriole: The arterioles that breaks into numerous capillaries to form
glomerulus present inside the Bowmans capsule
Efferent arteriole: merging from the Bowmans capsule these capillaries
combines together and travels a short distance and break up into the secondary
capillary network

Urine formation

It involves thr ee pr ocess:

 i Glomerular filtration - Filtration of water and dissolved substances out
of the blood in the glomeruli and into Bowmans capsule
ii Reabsorption - Reabsorption of water and dissolved substances out of
the kidney tubules back into the blood. This process prevents substances
required by the body from being lost in the urine.
iiiSecretion - Secretion of hydrogen ions (H), potassium ions (),
ammonia (NH3), and certain drugs out of the blood and into the kidney
tubules, where they are eventually eliminated in the urine

Glomerular filtration rate: It is the amount of glomerular filtrate formed in all

nephrons of both kidneys per minute.

It is about 12 m/ minute in a healthy individual.

Regulation of glomerular filtration rate is auto regulative. It is carried out by

uxtaglomerular apparatus

About 99 of filtrate is reabsorbed by renal tubule.

Glucose, amino acids, and sodium are actively absorbed.

Nitrogenous wastes and water are reabsorbed passively from filtrate.

Descending limb of Henle’s loop is permeable to water and impermeable to

electrolytes.

Ascending limb of Henle’s loop is impermeable to water.

Distal convoluted tubule involves reabsorption of sodium ions.

Counter current mechanism

It is an adaptation for conservation of water.

Two current mechanisms operating in kidney are – Henles loop and vasa
rectae. They both help in maintaining a concentration gradient in the
medullary interstitium.

Regulation of rine
The posterior lobe of Pituitary gland controls the Diuresis (increases production of
urine)and concentration of urine by water reabsorption with the help
of antidiuretic hormone ADH
smoregulation
The process of regulation of water and salts by the kidney when removing wastes like
urea is called osmoregulation. In other words the regulation of osmotic pressure of the
blood is known as osmoregulation.

Disorders of the excretory system

There are certain disorders that affect the excretory system. These include kidney stones,
urinary infections, presence of glucose or blood cells in the urine, etc.
 Sense Organs

Sense Organs: Organs that helps us to be aware of our surroundings are known as sense organs.

Receptors: Any cell or tissue sensitive to a selective stimuli are called receptors.

Eye

Composed of three layers:

Outermost layer- sclera and cornea

Middle layer- choroid, ciliary body, iris
Innermost layer- retina, with rod cells and cone cells.

Just behind the iris, a transparent, biconvex, and elastic structure called lens is present.

Rods – Contain rhodopsin pigment that is highly sensitive to dim light

Cones – Contain iodopsin pigment that is sensitive to high intensity light. Cones are also
responsible for colour vision.

Blind spot – Area where photoreceptors such as rods and cones are absent

Fovea – Area that contains only cones. Vision is finest and sharpest in this zone.

Aqueous chamber – Space between cornea and lens; contains aqueous humour.

Vitreous chamber – Space between lens and retina; contains vitreous humour

Pupil regulates the amount of light entering into the eyes.

Specific abilities of eyes

Power of Accommodation
Stereoscopic Vision

Mechanism of vision:

Light rays falls on retina

Dissociation of retinal from opsin

 ↓

Structure of opsin changes

Permeability of membrane changes

Generation of action potential in ganglionic cells

Transmission of impulse to cortical region of brain

Image formed on retina

Ear

Organ for hearing and equilibrium

Crista and macula are receptors of vestibular apparatus that are responsible for maintaining
body balance and posture.

Organ of corti is the main hearing structure of internal ear. It is located on basilar membrane
that has hair cells. The middle ear contains three small bones – malleus, incus, and stapes
(arranged from outside to inside).
 Mechanism of hearing

Pinna collects sound waves and directs it towards ear drum

Transmission of vibrations towards fenestra ovalis through ear ossicles

Generation of sound waves in lymph

Ripple created in basilar membrane bends the hair cells (of organ of corti) against tectorial
membrane

Sound waves converted into nerve impulses

Impulse carried to cortex of brain

Impulse analyzed and sound is recognized

Role of Ear in balancing Body

When we turn our head

fluid inside the semicircular canals moves

pushing against the sensory hair cells

sending nerve impulse to brain -->via auditory nerve

cells present in the semicircular canals are highly sensitive to dynamic equilibrium.

we are able to balance our body.

 Endocrine Glands

Hormones

Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate the physiological processes in

living organisms.
These act upon specific target cells/tissues and organs.

Differences between Hormonal Control and Nervous Control

Hormonal Control Nervous Control

Transmitted electro-chemically through nerve
Transmitted chemically through blood
fibres
Transmitted slowly Transmitted rapidly
Affects different organs Affects specific organs
Is not affected by previous experience Is affected by previous experience
Has both long lasting and short lasting
Has short lasting effect
effects
Glands

Exocrine glands – Glands that discharge their secretions into ducts

Examples: salivary gland in buccal cavity, sebaceous gland in skin

Endocrine gland– Glands that do not discharge their secretions into ducts, but
directly into blood
These are also called ductless glands. Examples: pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal
gland, etc.

Human Endocrine System

Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus, and gonads are
the organised endocrine glands in our body.
In addition, GI tract, liver, kidney, heart also produce hormones.

Adrenal gland

It is divided into:

Adrenal medulla – It secretes adrenaline (epinephrine) and

noradrenaline (norepinephrine). These are collectively called as
catecholamines. These hormones are also called emergency hormones.

Adrenal cortex – It secretes hormone called corticoids.

Corticoid such as glucocorticoid regulates carbohydrate

metabolism. Example includes cortisol.

Corticoid such as mineralocorticoid maintains the sodium

potassium level in blood and tissue. Example includes
aldosterone.

Hyposecretion : Less secretion from adrenal cortex.

Disease caused is called Addison's disease.

Hypersecretion: Excess of secretion from adrenal cortex

Disease caused is called Cushing's Syndrome.

Pancreas

The islets of Langerhans have two types of cells:

α – cells – secrete glucagon

1. β – cells – secrete insulin

Insufficient Secretion of Insulin

Disease caused: Diabetes mellitus
Over- Secretion of insulin
Disease caused: Hypoglycemia
 Hyperglycemia – Increased blood glucose level

Glucagon is a hyperglycaemic hormone.

Hypoglycaemia – Decreased blood glucose level
Insulin is a hypoglycaemic hormone.

Diabetes mellitus – Abnormal high glucose level in blood, which results in

release of sugar in urine and formation of toxic ketone bodies

Testis

Leydig cells (Interstitial cells) – Secrete androgens, mainly testosterone

Testosterone plays a role in spermatogenesis and development of male

secondary sexual characters.

Ovary

It secretes two hormones.

Estrogen – Secreted by Graafian follicle, it regulates the development of

female secondary sexual characters.

Progesterone – Secreted by corpus luteum, it acts on mammary glands and

helps in milk secretion.

Human endocrine system

Hypothalamus:

Contains neurosecretory cells that produce hormones

Hormones regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary glands.

Two types of hormones are released.

Releasing hormones – Stimulate pituitary gland to release hormones

Inhibiting hormones – Inhibit pituitary gland from releasing

hormones

Pineal gland
 It secretes a hormone called melatonin.

It also regulates the rhythm of body.

Thyroid gland

It secretes two hormones:

Tetraiodothyronine or thyroxin (T4)

Triiodothyronine (T3)

Deficiency of iodine results into

Hypothyroidism. The disease is known as goitre

Creatinism
Myxodema

High level of iodine results into hyperthyroidism.

Thyroid hormone plays a role in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism in the
body.

It also secretes thyrocalcitonin, which lowers the calcium level in blood plasma.

Parathyroid gland: It regulates calcium level in body. It increases the reabsorption

of calcium ions by renal tubules and digested food.

Pituitary gland

(i). Adenohypophysis is further divided into two regions:

Pars distalis (anterior pituitary):

Growth hormone – It is involved in growth and development of the body.

Low secretion of growth hormone results in dwarfism and acromegaly (extra
 growth of bones in jaws, hands or feet)

Prolactin – It helps in growth of mammary gland and milk formation.

Thyroid stimulating hormone – It helps in secretion of thyroxine from

thyroid glands.

Adreno-corticotrophic hormone – It helps in secretion of glucocorticoid

hormone from adrenal cortex.

Gonadotrophic hormone – It includes the following.

Luteinizing hormone – It helps in secretion of androgen from testis. It

also induces ovulation from Graafian follicles.

Follicle stimulating hormone – It maintains the growth and

development of Graafian follicle.

Pars intermedia: It secretes melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), which

maintains skin pigmentation.

(ii). Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary): – It contains pars nervosa region.

Pars nervosa region secretes two hormones:

Oxytocin – It helps in contraction of uterus and milk ejection.

Vasopressin (Anti-diuretic hormone) – It stimulates reabsorption of water

by distal convoluted tubules.Deficiency causes Diabetes Insipidus.

Thymus

This gland is degenerated with the age.

Thymus produces a hormone called thymosins.

Thymosins produce T-lymphocytes that protect the body against infectious

agents. It provides cell-mediated immunity and also humoral immunity.

Endocrine glands
 Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands such as the pituitary gland, thyroid
gland, adrenal gland, pancreas etc.
Major endocrine glands in humans are
Pituitary
Hypothalamus
Pineal
Thyroid
Thymus
Pancreas
Adrenal
Testis in men /ovary in women
A feedback mechanism (positive and negative) regulates the action of the
hormones.

Characteristics of hormones:

Hormones act as chemical messengers.

They are secreted by living cells/tissues or organs called glands.

They are secreted in very small quantities by glands.

They act upon specific cells, tissues, or organs called the target sites.

They are generally slow in action, but have long lasting effects.

They either accelerate or inhibit a reaction.

 The Reproductive System

Reproduction: It is a biological process through which living organisms produce

offsprings similar to themselves.
Modes of reproduction: Sexual and asexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction
It involves the fusion of male and female gametes.
Male gametes are called sperms and female gametes are called ova.
The type of reproduction, which involves only a single parent and the new individuals
are formed without fusion of gametes, is known as asexual reproduction.

Male and Female Reproductive Systems

Reproductive events in humans –

Male reproductive system: It includes

1. A pair of testes
2. Accessory glands and ducts
3. External genitalia

Testes are located outside the abdominal cavity, within the scrotum.
Scrotum acts as temperature regulator.
Testes contain seminiferous tubules that contain two types of cells.

1. Spermatogonia (male sperm cell)

2. Sertoli cells, which provide nutrition to spermatids (sperm)

Outside seminiferous tubules, there are eydig cells. eydig cells are also known as
interstitial cells. They secrete the male hormone, testosterone.
Male sex accessory ducts are

1. Rete testis
2. Vasa efferentia
3. Epididymis
4. Vas deferens

Male external genitalia include the penis. It facilitates insemination.

 Male accessory glands are

1. Seminal vesicles
2. Prostate gland
3. Bulbourethral gland

Female reproductive system: It consists of

1. A pair of ovaries
2. A pair of oviducts (fallopian tube)
3. Uterus
4. Vagina
5. External genitalia
6. A pair of mammary glands

Female accessory ducts are oviduct, uterus and vagina.

The fallopian tube is divided into isthmus, amphulla and infundibulum.

Structure and Function of Female Reproductive System

Female reproductive system: Consists of

1. A pair of ovaries
2. A pair of oviducts (fallopian tube)
3. Uterus
4. Vagina
5. External genitalia
6. A pair of mammary glands
 Female accessory ducts are oviduct, uterus and vagina.
The fallopian tube is divided into isthmus, ampulla and infundibulum.
Ovaries are the primary female sex organ. The ovarian stroma is made up of peripheral
cortex and inner medulla.

Menstrual cycle

Menarche: First occurrence of menstruation at puberty

Menopause: End of the menstrual cycle, at around 50 years of age

Events during the menstrual cycle –

Menstruation phase: It involves the process of menstruation. If the egg

does not get fertilised, the endometrium breaks down and is released out
from the vagina in the form of blood.

Follicular/proliferative phase: It involves increase in levels of FSH and LH

hormones.

Release of the FSH hormone stimulates the primary follicle to change

into the matured Graafian follicle.

Release of the LH hormone induces release of the ovum.

Ovulatory phase: It is characterised by ovulation or release of the ovum

from the Graafian follicle due to high level of LH hormone.

Luteal phase: It is characterised by the rupture of the Graafian follicle in

the corpus luteum.
 In the absence of fertilisation the corpus luteum degenerates

The corpus luteum secretes progesterone

Progesterone is important during pregnancy as it prepares the endometrial wall

of the uterus for implantation

Fertilisation and implantation

Fertilisation takes place in the ampullary–isthmic unction

Binding of the sperm with the zona pellucida layer of the ovum changes the membrane
permeability and blocks the entry of any other sperm

Sex of the baby is determined by the type of the male gamete X or that fuses with
the female gamete X

A diploid zygote undergoes several mitotic divisions to form the blastocyst

Zygote Blastula Morula ( to 16 cell stages) Blastocyst

The blastocyst is implanted in the endometrium of the uterus

Pregnancy
After implantation the trophoblast forms finger-like proections called chorionic villi
surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood
The chorionic villi and the uterine tissue get integrated to form the placenta
Placenta: It is the structural and functional unit between the embryo and the maternal
body It is connected to the embryo through the umbilical cord Placenta acts as a
permeable membrane and allows diffusion of substances through it Moreover it does
not allow the germs to pass through
Substances that passes through placenta:
From Mother to Foetus
xygen
utrientsgucose amino acids vitamins mineral ions
From Foetus to Mother
C
rea and other wastes

Functions of the placenta:

 mbilical cord helps in transportation of substances between the mother and the
foetus

Provides nutrients to the embryo

Removes waste products produced by the foetus

It releases several hormones that are essential for pregnancy –

Human chorionic gonadotropin hCG

Human placental lactogen hPL

estrogens

Progestogens

Relaxin is secreted by the ovary

Relaxin hCG and hPL are released only during pregnancy

After nine months of pregnancy the foetus is ready for delivery

Parturition: It is the process of expulsion of the full term foetus out of the uterus It is
induced by the hormone oxytocin

actation: It the process of producing milk after the birth of the baby The hormone
involved in lactation is prolactin
 Human Evolution

Origin of life
Evolutionary biology is the field of science that deals with the study of
evolutionary development of life forms on earth
Big-bang theory explains the origin of the universe.
Scientists believed that life originated through chemical evolution.
Formation of biomolecules → First life form

According to Oparin and Haldane, the primitive atmosphere was

reducing as it lacked oxygen. The atmosphere was rich in methane, water
vapour, ammonia and carbon dioxide.
The temperature was high and volcanic eruptions were frequent.
Urey and Miller experimentally confirmed that formation of life was
preceded by chemical evolution.
Branching descent and natural selection are the key concepts of
Darwin’s theory.

Evidences of evolution -
Fossils
Homologous organs
Analogous organs
Vestigial organs
Comaprative anatomy and morphology
Embryological evidences
Molecular evidences

The slow and gradual process of change of one organism into another is known
as Organic Evolution.
The occurrence of evolution has been supported by various theories put forth by
biologists.
In 1809, Jean Baptiste Lamarck a French zoologist put forth the theory of
inheritance of acquired characters; also known as Lamarckism.
He stated that according to their need, organisms put some organs in their
bodies to maximum use while some of the organs were not used. The part of the
body put to maximum use will have the tendency to grow larger and stronger
while the part less used will become less prominent and ultimately disappear
 altogether. Thus, the organisms acquired new characters. For example, giraffe
have developed long necks as a result of attempts to eat leaves high up on trees.

Darwinism

According to Darwin, evolution took place by natural selection.

Another aspect of natural selection is the survival of the fittest, where nature
selects the individuals, which are most fit, to adapt to their environment.

Evolution of man
 Population

Population

It is a group of organisms inhabiting a given area.

Attributes of population are –

Birth rate

Death rate

Sex ratio

Age distribution

Age pyramid: It shows the age distribution pattern for a population.

Age pyramid for human population shows –

Expanding population: Has a broader base, representing more number of

individuals in pre-reproductive (young individuals) age group

Stable population: Has almost equal number of individuals in the pre-

reproductive and reproductive age groups, converging at the post-reproductive
age group

Declining population: Has lesser number of individuals in the pre-reproductive

group and greater number of individuals in the reproductive age group

Demography

The Statistical study of human population considering the following factors:

Distribution of population
Size and Density of population
Birth rate
Death rate
Growth rate of population
Reasons Behind the Population Explosion
Rapid rise in population has been observed in past few decades and some of the reasons
behind it are:

Industrial Revolution
New Discoveries in Medical Science

Factors responsible for population explosion in India

Consequences of population explosion

Environmental pollution
Problem of poverty and unemployment
Price hike
Sanitation problem in congested areas
Pressure on natural resources like water mineral resources, food, forests and fossil
fuels.
Sustainable Use of Resources:

Using the resources in such a manner that it is available for the future generation as well as
there is no ill effect on the resource.

Sustainable Development can be achieved by:

Optimum utilisation of resources

Recycling and reusing
Using renewable resources

Need for adopting control measures as it creates a lot of problems:

Per capita income is decreasing
Health of population is affected
Over utilisation of natural resouces
Contraceptive methods include

Intrauterine devices: Non-medicated IUDs (e.g., Lippes loop), Copper-

releasing IUDs (e.g., CuT, Cu7), and hormone-releasing IUDs (e.g., LNG 20).
Oral administration: Mainly used in the form of pills. Example: saheli
Sterilisation technique: It includes surgical methods.
Tubectomy: It involves the cutting and tying of the fallopian tube in females.
Vasectomy: It involves the cutting and tying of the vas deferens in males.

It is essential to educate the people about populatiuon explosion and its adverse effects
by creating awareness and educating people about advantages of small families.
 Pollution

Global warming - The rise in overall temperature of the earth because of the
green house effect is referred as global warming.
Air pollution
The layer of air present around the earth is called atmosphere.
Atmosphere is composed of of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 1
percent other gases such as carbon dioxide, ozone, water vapour,
methane, etc.
The phenomenon of contamination of air with unwanted substances so
that it becomes harmful for living organisms and non-living substances is
known as air pollution.
The substances, which cause air pollution, are called air pollutants.
Sources of air pollution are
Power plants
Factories
Automobiles
Burning of firewood

Types of air pollutants

Carbon monoxide
It is a colourless poisonous gas.
It is produced from incomplete burning of fossil fuels.
Smog
It is made up of smoke and fog.

Sulphur dioxide
It is produced from combustion of fuels.

itrogen dioxide
It is produced from incomplete burning of fuels.

Chlorofluorocarbons CFCs
They are released from refrigerators, air conditioners, and aerosol sprays.
They cause damage to the ozone layer resulting in the formation of ozone
hole.
 Suspended particulate matter
It comprises of tiny particles, which remain suspended in air for a long
time.
They are produced during burning of fossil fuels in power plants, mining,
steel making, and other industrial processes.

Ozone depletion
Ozone can be classified as good ozone and bad ozone.
Good ozone is present in the stratospheric region of the atmosphere while
bad ozone is produced by the interaction between the various primary
pollutants in the tropospheric layer.
The thickness of ozone is measured in terms of Dobson units (DU).
The thinned layer of ozone over Antarctica region is referred to as the
ozone hole.

Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs have caused damage to the stratospheric layer,

leading to the formation of the ozone hole.

High dose of UV-B radiations causes corneal cataract and inflammation of cornea
in human beings. The inflammation of cornea is known as snow blindness or
sunburn of cornea.
Montreal Protocol is an international treaty signed for controlling the emission
of ozone-depleting substances. It was signed in the year 1987.

Water pollution

The common sources of water pollution are domestic sewage, industrial

effluents, thermal wastewater discharge.
Eutrophication: It is the natural ageing process of a water body due to nutrient
enrichment. It increases the ecosystem’s primary productivity.
Domestic sewage is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus. These compounds act as
nutrients for the growth of algae in contaminated water bodies. This accelerates
the rate of eutrophication in the water bodies.
Oil Spills - The accidental discharge of oil or petroleum in water bodies is
called oil spills. This results in the death of a lot of marine lives.
The algal bloom causes the microbial population to increase, which consumes
larger amount of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies. As a result, the level of
dissolved oxygen in the water bodies decreases, and biological oxygen demand
of the water bodies increases.
 Industrial effluents contain inorganic toxic substances, which may undergo
biomagnification
Thermal wastewater discharge involves release of heated water from thermal
power plants that increase the temperature of the water body. It causes damage
to the indigenous biodiversity of the water body.
Biological magnification: It is the increase in the concentration of pollutants or
harmful chemicals with the increase in each trophic level. DDT shows the
phenomenon of biomagnification.
Integrated wastewater management is the possible solution for controlling
water pollution. In this approach, the water is first treated by conventional
means such as filtration, sedimentation, and chlorine treatment, followed by
bioremediation.

Sources of soil pollution:

Industrial Wastes
Commercial and Domestic Waste
Chemical Fertilizers
Biomedical Wastes
Pesticides

Solid waste can be categorised into into two types:

Biodegradable Waste
Non- biodegradable Waste

Preventive measures to reduce soil pollution:

Treating the waste products before disposal

Reducing the use of polythene bags

Minimizing the use of products made of plastic

Minimizing the use of pesticides

Sources of radioactive pollution

Mining of radioactive ores (such as uranium and thorium)

Nuclear power plants accidents
Nuclear explosions
 Industrial emissions from nuclear reactors
se of X rays in medicine

Effects of radioactive pollution

Radiations have the ability to penetrate into the body tissues and can bring the
cellular damage It leads to various diseases such as skin cancer eye cataract
etc
Radioactive substances when penetrate into the soil result in soil pollution
They destroy the fertility of the soil
Radioactive substances can get transported into the plants through roots It
leads to genetic mutation and hampers the normal functioning of plants

Measure to prevent radioactive pollution

The safety measures during the handling of radioactive substances should be

strictly enforced
Careless handling of radioisotopes and leakage from nuclear reactors must be
avoided
The radioactive wastes must be carefully and efficiently dispose off from the
environment
Industrial wastes carrying radioactive substances must be adeuately treated
before being discharged into the environment

npleasant sound is called noise

Noise pollution – Presence of unwanted and excessive sound in the
environment
oise pollution may cause many health related problems
Measures to control noise pollution:
Moving noise producing industries away from residential area
Minimizing the usage of loud speakers
Avoiding unnecessary usage of horns
Planting more and more trees