TRANSFORMER

• If we arrange two electrically isolated coils in such a way that the time-
varying flux due to one of them causes an electromotive force (emf) to be
induced in the other, they are said to form a transformer.
• magnetically coupled coils.
• loosely coupled - only a fraction of the flux produced by one coil links the other
• air-core transformer:- core is made of a nonmagnetic material,
• Iron core transformer: - ferromagnetic material with relatively high permeability
• almost all the flux created by one coil links the other
• the reluctance of the magnetic path is low
• The frequency of the induced emf in the other coil is the same as that of the
current in the first coil
• If the other coil is connected to a load, the induced emf in the coil establishes a
current in it. Thus, the power is transferred from one coil to the other via the
magnetic flux in the core.

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 TRANSFORMER
• Two windings are;
• primary winding:- The coil to which the
source supplies the power
• secondary winding:- The coil that delivers
power to the load
• Since the induced emf in a coil is
proportional to the number of turns in a coil,
it is possible to have a higher voltage across
the secondary than the applied voltage to
the primary or vice versa
• step-up:- Secondary voltage is higher than
primary voltage
• step-down:- has a lower voltage on the
secondary side
• isolation transformer:- one-to-one ratio (used
for isolating DC from AC)

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 TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
• In order to keep the core loss to a minimum, the core of a transformer is built
up of thin laminations of highly permeable ferromagnetic material such as
silicon sheet steel.
• Non-aging
• low magnetic losses
• The process of cutting the laminations to the proper size results in punching
and shearing strains. These strains cause an increase in the core loss. In
order to remove the punching and shearing strains, the laminations are
subjected to high temperatures in a controlled environment for some time. It
is known as the annealing process.

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 TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
• two types of construction are in common
• core type: the two windings are usually wound over the same leg of the
magnetic core
• shell type: each winding may be evenly split and wound on both legs of the
rectangular core
• windings may be wound directly on the core of the transformer for relatively
low power applications with moderate voltage ratings
• coils are usually form-wound and then assembled over the core for high-
voltage and/or high-power transformers

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 TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
• Temperature Control:
• Both the core and copper loss generate heat which, in turn, increases the
operating temperature of the transformer
• For low-power applications, natural air circulation may be enough to keep the
temperature of the transformer within an acceptable range.

• If the temperature increase cannot be controlled by natural air circulation, a

transformer may be cooled by continuously forcing air through its core and windings.

• When forced-air circulation is not enough, a transformer may be immersed in a

transformer oil, which carries the heat to the walls of the containing tank

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 IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• Assume the following;
1. The core of the transformer is highly
permeable in a sense that it requires
vanishingly small magnetomotive
force (mmf ) to set up the flux , as
shown in the figure.

2. The core does not exhibit any eddy-

current or hysteresis loss.

3. All the flux is confined to circulate

within the core.

4. The resistance of each winding is

negligible.

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 IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• According to Faraday’s Law, an emf
e1 is induced in the primary winding
N1 by magnetic flux, Φ in the core

• the ratio of primary to secondary

induced emf is equal to the ratio of
primary to secondary turns.

Transformation ratio.

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 IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• Let i2 be the secondary current
when connected to load. Then
the mmf are;

Or

• the primary and the secondary

currents are transformed in the
inverse ratio of turns.
• Current in secondary tends to
oppose Φ in the core and e1 in
N1
• the power output (delivered to
the load) is equal to the power
input (supplied by the source).
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 IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• If the flux in the core at any instant, t is given as
then
and - phasor form

• Likewise, the induced emf in the secondary winding is

• For an idealized transformer, the terminal voltages are also in phase.

• From the mmf requirements, I1 and I2 also in phase

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 IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• Finally;
implies that Complex Power

• the complex power supplied to the primary winding by the source is equal to
the complex power delivered to the load by the secondary winding.
• In terms of apparent power;

• If Z2, is the load impedance on the secondary side, then

Z1 is the load impedance as referred to the primary

side. Alternatively, load impedance as seen by the
source on the primary side is equal to 1/a2 times the
actual load impedance on the secondary side.
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 IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• Transformer Polarity: A transformer may have multiple windings. EMF with
similar polarities are denoted with a DOT as shown below.

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 IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• Transformer Rating: The nameplate of a transformer provides information on
the apparent power and the voltage-handling capacity of each winding
• Example: 500-kVA, 500/250-V Step down transformer means:
• Full load/nominal power rating is 5-kVA
• Nominal primary voltage: 500-V
• Nominal secondary voltage: 250-V
• Nominal primary current: 10-A
• Nominal Secondary current: 20-A
• Turns ratio: 2

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 NONIDEAL TRANSFORMER
• The restrictions placed in ideal transformer
analysis will be lifted for non-ideal analysis
1. Winding Resistances
The inclusion of the winding resistances
dictates that;
1. the power input must be greater than the
power output,

2. the terminal voltage is not equal to the

induced emf, and

3. the efficiency (the ratio of power output to

power input) of a nonideal transformer is
less than 100%.
• R1 is the primary winding resistance and R2
is the secondary winding resistance

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 NONIDEAL TRANSFORMER
• The restrictions placed in ideal transformer
analysis will be lifted for nonideal analysis
2. Leakage Fluxes
Not all of the flux created by a winding
confines itself to the magnetic core on which
the winding is wound. Part of the flux, known
as the leakage flux, does complete its path
through air.
• primary leakage flux:- primary does not link
the secondary
• secondary leakage flux:- secondary flux
does not link the primary
• mutual flux:- common flux that circulates in
the core and links both windings

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 NONIDEAL TRANSFORMER
• The restrictions placed in ideal transformer analysis will be lifted for non-ideal
analysis
2. Leakage Fluxes
Since leakage flux results in voltage drop, they can be modelled as X1 (primary
reactance) and X2 (secondary reactance)

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NONIDEAL TRANSFORMER

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 NONIDEAL TRANSFORMER
• The restrictions placed in ideal transformer analysis will be lifted for non-ideal
analysis
3. Finite permeability
• The core of a non-ideal transformer has finite permeability and core loss. Therefore,
even when the secondary is left open (no-load condition) the primary winding
draws some current, known as the excitation current, from the source. It is a
common practice to assume that the excitation current, IΦ,is the sum of two
currents:
• the core-loss current, Ic, and the magnetizing current, Im. That is,

• Ic is responsible for core loss (hysteresis and eddy-current)

• Im is responsible for setting up mutual flux in the primary coil

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 NONIDEAL TRANSFORMER
• The restrictions placed in ideal transformer analysis will be lifted for nonideal
analysis
3. Finite permeability
• If the core-loss resistance is Rc1 then

• Similarly, if magnetizing reactance is Xm1, then

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 NONIDEAL TRANSFORMER
• Equivalent circuit of a transformer including winding resistances, leakage
reactance, core-loss resistance, magnetizing reactance, and an ideal
transformer.

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 NONIDEAL TRANSFORMER
• The following occurs when load is increased
• The secondary winding current increases.
• The current supplied by the source increases.
• The voltage drop across the primary winding impedance Zi, increases.
• The induced emf E1 drops.
• Finally, the mutual flux decreases owing to the decrease in the magnetizing current.

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 NONIDEAL TRANSFORMER
• In an equivalent circuit, two parallel lines are used to denote a magnetic
core as shown
• The ideal transformer is enclosed in dotted lines
• Therefore;

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 NONIDEAL TRANSFORMER
• From the current equation, the transformer is modelled per the following
• The exact equivalent circuit as viewed from the primary side of the transformer.

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 NONIDEAL TRANSFORMER
• From the current equation, the transformer is modelled per the following
• The exact equivalent circuit as viewed from the secondary side of the transformer.

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EXAMPLE

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 PHASOR DIAGRAM
• When a transformer
operates under steady-
state conditions, an
insight into its currents,
voltages, and phase
angles can be obtained
by sketching its phasor
diagram.
• Even though a phasor
diagram can be
developed by using any
phasor quantity as a
reference, we use the
load voltage as a
reference because quite
often it is a known
quantity.

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 APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
• In a well-designed transformer, the winding resistances, the leakage
reactances, and the core loss are kept as low as possible.
1. Low core-loss current, Ic1 means high core resistance Rc1
2. High permeability (µ) of the core means high magnetizing reactance, jXm1
• From that, the parallel impedance >> Z1 and/or Z2, thus the V across the
parallel branch ≈ V1. Therefore, we move the shunt branch forward

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APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Viewed from/referred to primary

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APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Viewed from/referred to secondary

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 VOLTAGE REGULATION
• Change in transformer terminal voltage at the secondary from no load to full
load as a percentage of its rated voltage given by;

• For an ideal transformer, the voltage regulation is zero. The smaller the
voltage regulation, the better the operation of the transformer.

Viewed from primary

Viewed from secondary

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 MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY CRITERION
• Efficiency(η) is simply the ratio of power output(Po) to power input(Pin)
• The two losses are the magnetic loss(Pm) (or core loss) and the copper
loss(Pcu) (or I2R loss).
• Magnetic loss (Pm) is also known as the fixed loss in that it does not vary with
load whereas copper loss is also called variable loss due to the fact that it varies
with load.
• core loss comes in two forms;
1. Eddy-current loss:
2. Hysteresis loss:

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 MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY CRITERION
1. Eddy-current loss: can be reduced using cores made of thinner laminations

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 MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY CRITERION
2. Hysteresis Loss:

• By testing various ferromagnetic

materials, Charles Steinmetz
proposed that the hysteresis loss
can be expressed as

• Therefore, total magnetic (fixed)

loss is;

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 MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY CRITERION
• there exists a definite load for which the efficiency of a transformer is
maximum
• According to approx. equivalent circuit viewed from primary;

• If the copper loss is;

• Then input power is;

• Then the transformer efficiency is;

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 MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY CRITERION

• The conditions for max efficiency of a transformer is found by differentiating

the efficiency wrt ip and equating to zero,

• That is; the efficiency of a transformer is maximum when the copper loss is
equal to the core (magnetic) loss

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 MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY CRITERION
• That is; the efficiency of a transformer is maximum when the copper loss is
equal to the core (magnetic) loss

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 DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS
• The equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer can be determined by
performing two tests:
1. the open-circuit test and
• The core-loss resistance and the magnetizing reactance are determined from this test

2. the short-circuit test.

• The total leakage reactance and winding resistance are measured

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 DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS
1. the open-circuit test and

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 DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS
1. the open-circuit test and
• Performed on the low voltage side.
• Excitation voltage is the rated voltage

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 DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS
1. the short-circuit test and

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 DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS
1. the short-circuit test and • Test performed on high voltage side
• Rated current is allowed to pass
through coils so extra care must be
taken

There is no easier method to separate the two

leakage reactance
Winding resistance can be found through
measuring only
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 PER UNIT COMPUTATIONS
• The main advantage of using per unit is the comparison of performance of
similar machines
• Four quantities of interest are considered to be used as base values of which
any two are chosen
• Voltage, current, apparent power & impedance

• From these two, other derived base quantities can be determined and all
calculations done in pu.
• Per Unit values may be converted back to actual values if need be.
• *See example 4.9 in the text on how pu is applied…

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 AUTOTRANSFORMERS
• In an autotransformer, there is a direct connection between the primary and
secondary
• Energy is transferred thru both conduction and induction

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 AUTOTRANSFORMERS
• Advantages over two winding transformers;
• It is cheaper in first cost than a conventional two-winding transformer of a
similar rating.
• It delivers more power than a two-winding transformer of similar physical
dimensions.
• For a similar power rating, an autotransformer is more efficient than a two
winding transformer.
• An autotransformer requires lower excitation current than a two-winding
transformer to establish the same flux in the core.

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 AUTOTRANSFORMERS
• 4 possible connections/ways of
converting a 2-winding
transformer to an
autotransformer

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 AUTOTRANSFORMERS
• In an autotransformer, there is a direct connection between the primary and
secondary
• Energy is transferred through both conduction and induction

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