1

CHAPTER 3
 Transformer is a device that changes ac electrical power at
one voltage level to ac electric power at another voltage
level through the action of magnetic field.
 The input and the output of transformer are AC voltage

2
Step Up.
 In modern power system, electrical power is generated at
voltage of 12kV to 25kV.
 Transformer will step up the voltage to between 110kV to
1000kV for transmission over long distance at very low
lost.

Step Down.
 The transformer will stepped down the voltage to the 12kV
to 34.5kV range for local Distribution.
 In homes, offices and factories stepped down to 240V.

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4
Power transformers are constructed on two types
of cores;
1. Core type - construction consists of a simple rectangular
laminated piece of steel with the transform winding wrapped
around the two sides of the rectangle.

2. Shell type -construction consists of a three-legged

laminated core with the winding wrapped around the
center leg.

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 A transformer consists of 3 basic components
 Primary Coil Winding : It is an electrical wire wrapped around
the core on the input side
 Secondary Coil Winding: It is an electrical wire wrapped
around the core on the output side
 Core : A ferromagnetic material that can conduct a magnetic
field through it. Example: Iron

6
 Transformer consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped
around a common ferromagnetic core. The coils are usually
not directly connected.
 The common magnetic flux present within the coils by the
principle of mutual inductance.
 There are two windings;
 (i) Primary winding (input winding); the winding that is
connected to the power source.
 (ii) Secondary winding (output winding); the winding
connected to the loads.

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 When AC voltage is applied to the primary winding of the
transformer, an AC current will result i1 or i2 (current at
load).
 The AC primary current i1 set up time varying magnetic
flux  in the core. The flux links to the secondary winding
of the transformer.
 From the Faraday law, the emf will be induced in the
secondary winding. This is known as transformer action.
 The current i2 will flow in the secondary winding and
electric power will be transfer to the load.
 The direction of the current in the secondary winding is
determined by Len’z law. The secondary current’s direction
is such that the flux produced by this current opposes the
change in the original flux with respect to time.

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 Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will
cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil. No matter how
the change is produced, the voltage will be generated.
 The change could be produced by changing the magnetic field
strength, moving a magnet toward or away from the coil, moving
the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative
to the magnet, etc.
 Inserting a magnet into a coil also produces an induced voltage or
current. The faster speed of insertion/retraction, the higher the
induced voltage.

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 When two electrical
coils are placed near to
each other, AC
electrical current
flowing in one coil
induces an AC voltage
in the other coil.
 This is because current
in the first coil creates
a magnetic field around
the first coil that is
concentrated by the
core which in turn
induces a voltage in
second coil

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 According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, electromagnetic force (emf’s) are induced in N1
and N2 due to a time rate of change of ,

d d d d
e  N ; e1  N1 ; e2  N 2
dt dt dt dt
Where
 e = instantaneous voltage induced by magnetic field (emf)
  = number of flux linkages between the magnetic field and
the electric circuit.
  = effective flux

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 Lenz’s Law states that the direction of e1 is such to produce
a current that opposes the flux changes.
 If the winding resistance is neglected, then

d d
V1  e1  N1 ; V2  e2  N 2
dt dt

 Taking the voltage ratio;

V1 N1

V2 N 2

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 According to Lenz’s Law, the direction of e is oppose the
flux changes, and the flux varies sinusoidally such that

d d max sin t d sin t

 Substitute eN N  N max
dt dt dt
 The rms value of the induce voltage is;

N max 2fN max

E   4.44 fN max
2 2
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 The Turns Ratio (a) is the ratio of the number of turns in the
primary coil to the number of turns in the secondary coil

no. of turns in the primary NP

TR  a  
no. of turns in the secondary N S
 The voltage at the secondary coil, VS can be different from the
voltage at the primary, VP. This happens when the number of
turns of the coil in primary and secondary are not the same

 a > 1 - Step down transformer

N P VP
 a < 1 - Step up transformer a 
 a = 1 - Isolation Transformer
N S VS

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15
 How many turns must the primary and the secondary
windings of a 220/110 V, 60 Hz ideal transformer have if
the core flux is not allowed to exceed 5mWb?
…………..
 For an ideal transformer with no losses,

V1 220
N1   3
 165 turns
4.44 f max 4.44  60  5 10
V2 110
N2   3
 83 turns
4.44 f max 4.44  60  5 10

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 A transformer has a primary voltage of 230 V and turns
ratio of 5:1. Calculate the secondary voltage
………...

5 VP
TR  
1 VS
VP 230
VS    46 V #
TR 5

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 There are 400 turns of wire in an iron-core coil. If this coil
is to be used as the primary of a transformer, how many
turns must be wound on the coil to form the secondary
winding of the transformer to have a secondary voltage of 1
V if the primary voltage is 5 V.
(80 turns)

 A 12 volts transformer has 20 turns in the primary, 5

turns in the secondary. Calculate the voltage across the
primary side.
(48 volts)

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 An Ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input
winding and an output winding.
 100% efficiency: An ideal transformer does not have any
losses like hysteresis loss, eddy current loss etc. So, the
output power of an ideal transformer is exactly equal to the
input power. Hence, 100% efficiency
 Zero winding resistance: It is assumed that, resistance of
primary as well as secondary winding of an ideal transformer
is zero. That is, both the coils are purely inductive in nature.
 Infinite permeability of the core: Higher the permeability,
lesser the mmf required for flux establishment. That means, if
permeability is high, less magnetizing current is required to
magnetize the transformer core.
 No leakage flux: Leakage flux is a part of magnetic flux which
does not get linked with secondary winding. In an ideal
transformer, it is assumed that entire amount of flux get
linked with secondary winding (that is, no leakage flux).

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20
 Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to
show the sign of the phase angle of current with respect to
voltage.
 Where the waveforms are purely sinusoidal, the power
factor is the cosine of the phase angle () between the
current and voltage sinusoid waveforms.
 In term of phasor quantities, Vp and Vs are in the same
phase angle. Ip and Is are in the same phase angle too. The
turn ratio, a of the ideal transformer affects the magnitude
only but not the their angle.
 Vp 
Pout  Vs I s cos    aI p cos   V p I p cos   Pin
 a 
Qout  Vs I s sin   V p I p sin   Qin
S out  Vs I s  V p I p  Sin
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 Consider an ideal, single-phase 2400/240V transformer.
The primary is connected to a 2200 V source and the
secondary is connected to an impedance of 2 < 36.9º Ω.
Evaluate;
(i) the secondary output current and output voltage
(ii) the primary input current
(iii) the load impedance as seen from the primary side.
(iv) the real output power.

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 2400
a  10
240
V 2200
V2  1   220 V
a 10
V2 220
I2    110  36.9 A
Z 2 236.9
I 2 110  36.9
I1    11  36.9 A
a 10
V 2200
Z in  1   20036.9 
I1 11  36.9
S1  V1 I1*  22001136.9  242036.9 VA
S 2  V2 I 2*  22011036.9  242036.9 VA
pf  cos36.9  0.8 (lagging )
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 Winding resistance & magnetic flux leakage
 R1 & R2 : resistances of primary & secondary windings
respectively.
 X1 & X2 : leakage reactances of primary & secondary
windings respectively.

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 2 Types of Losses
 Core Losses Or Iron Losses
 Copper Loss

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 Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic
properties of the material used for the construction of core. Hence
these losses are also known as core losses or iron losses.
 Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of
magnetization in the transformer core. This loss depends upon the
volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and
value of flux density. Hysteresis lost is caused by the energy used in
orienting the magnetic domains of the material along the field. The
lost depends on the material used.
 Eddy current loss in transformer: is basically loss due to the induced
current in the magnetic material. To reduce this lost, the magnetic
circuit is usually made of a stack of thin laminations. In transformer,
AC current is supplied to the primary winding which sets up
alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with secondary
winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also
gets linked with other conducting parts like steel core or iron body or
the transformer, which will result in induced emf in those parts,
causing small circulating current in them. This current is called as
eddy current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be
dissipated in the form of heat.

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 Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer
windings. Copper loss for the primary winding is I12R1 and
for secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1 and I2 are current
in primary and secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2
are the resistances of primary and secondary winding
respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to
square of the current, and current depends on the load.
Hence copper loss in transformer varies with the load

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 To analyze the transformer it is necessary to convert the
entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a single voltage
level

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 The equivalent impedance for the circuit is;

Z eq1  Req1  jX eq1  ( R1  a 2 R2 )  j ( X 1  a 2 X 2 )

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 The equivalent impedance for the circuit is;

R1 X1
Z eq 2  Req 2  jX eq 2  ( 2  R2 )  j ( 2  X 2 )
a a

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A 50kVA, 1100/220 V, 50 Hz transformer has a primary
winding resistance of 0.125 Ω and leakage reactance of
0.625 Ω. The secondary winding has corresponding values of
0.005 Ω and 0.025 Ω respectively. The magnetizing
reactance, Xm = 98 Ω and core loss resistance, Rc = 350 Ω
referred to the primary. Draw the approximate equivalent
circuits to the transformer, referred to
(a) the primary and
(b) the secondary.
Show the numerical values of the circuit parameters

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 Voltage regulation is a measure of the change in the
terminal voltage of the transformer with respect to loading.
 The voltage regulation is defined as:

Vp
Vs ,nl  Vs , fl  Vs , fl
VR  100  a 100
Vs , fl Vs , fl

 For ideal transformer, VR = 0 because Vs ,nl  Vs , fl

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33
 since current which flow in magnetizing branch is small
can be ignored
 Assuming secondary phasor voltage as reference VS with
an angle of 0 Vp
 Writing the KVL equation:
 Vs  I s Reqs  jI s X eqs
a
 phasor diagram can be shown

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 Vp
 If power factor is unity or lagging, V  , so VR > 0
s
a

Vp
 If power factor is leading, Vs  , so VR < 0
a

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A 10 kVA 2400/240 V transformer referred to its secondary
windings and has the following resistances and leakage
reactance; R1 = 3.0 Ω, X1 = 15 Ω, R2 = 0.03 Ω, X2 = 0.15 Ω.
Calculate;
(i) Equivalent impedance, Zeq.
(ii) Voltage regulation when the load factor is 0.8 lagging.
(iii)Voltage regulation when the load factor is 0.8 lagging.
…………
V1 2400
(i ) a    10
V2 240
R  X 
Z eq 2   21  R2   j  21  X 2 
a  a 
 3   15 
  0.03   j   0.15 
 100   100 
 0.06  j 0.3  0.3178.7 
36
  cos 1 0.8  36.9
*
 S   10k36.9 
*

I 2   b      41.67  36.9 A
 V2   240 
V
(ii ) KVL  1  V2  I 2 Z eq 2 (lagging )
a
 2400  41.67  36.90.3178.7
 240  9.63  j8.61  249.63  j8.61  249.81.98
V1
 V2
a 249.8  240
VR  100  100  4.08%
V2 240
V1
(iii ) KVL   V2  I 2 Z eq 2 (leading )
a
 2400  41.6736.90.3178.7
 240  5.58  j11.65  234.42  j11.65  234.72.85
V1
 V2
234.7  240
VR  a 100  100  2.21%
V2 240
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 Provides magnetizing reactance and core loss resistance
 Obtain components are connected in parallel
 The open circuit test is conducted by applying rated voltage
at rated frequency to one of the windings, with the other
windings open circuited.
 The input power and current are measured.
 For reasons of safety and convenience, the measurements
are made on the low-voltage (LV) side of the transformer.

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 The secondary / high voltage (HV) side is open, the input
current is equal to the no load current or exciting current
(I0), and is quite small.
 The input power is almost equal to the core loss at rated
voltage and frequency.

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 2
Voc
Poc  Pcore  Voc I c 
Rc
Poc
cos  oc 
Voc I oc
I c  I oc cos  oc ; I m  I oc sin  oc ; I o  I oc  I c2  I m2
Voc Voc
Rc _ LV  ; X m _ LV 
Ic Im

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 The short-circuit test is used to determine the equivalent series
resistance and reactance.
 Provides combined leakage reactance and winding resistance

 One winding is shorted at its terminals, and the other winding is

connected through proper meters to a variable, low-voltage, high-
current source of rated frequency.
 The source voltage is increased until the current into the
transformer reaches rated value. To avoid unnecessary high
currents, the short-circuit measurements are made on the high-
voltage side of the transformer.

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 Psc
Psc  I Req _ HV
2
sc  Req _ HV  2
I sc
Vsc
Z eq _ HV 
I sc
X eq _ HV  Z eq2 _ HV  Req2 _ HV
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 Evaluate the equivalent circuit referring to the low voltage
(LV) side for a 200/400 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer
from the following test data:
OC test: 200 V, 0.7 A, 70 W on LV side
SC test: 15 V, 10 A, 85 W on HV side

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The result of open-circuit test and short-circuit test on 25
kVA, 440/220 V, 60 Hz transformer as follow;
Open-circuit Test : Primary open circuited, Voc = 220 V, Ioc =
9.6 A, Poc = 710 W
Short-circuit Test : Secondary open circuited, Vsc = 42 V, Isc
= 57 A, Psc = 1030 W

Calculate the values of magnetizing reactance, Xm, core loss

resistance, Rc and the equivalent series resistance, Req and
reactance, Xeq. Draw an equivalent circuit relative to the HV
side.

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 Evaluate the equivalent circuit referring to the low voltage
(LV) side for a 5000 kVA, 230/13.8 kV, single phase
transformer has PU resistance 1% and PU reactance 5%.
The OC performed test data are 13.8 kV, 15.1 A and 44.9
W on LV side
…………………
I oc 15.1
Yex    1.0942 10 3
Voc 13.8 10 3

 Poc  1  44.9 103 

  cos  1
  cos    77.56
3 
 I ocVoc   15.113.8 10 
1 1
Rc    4242.5 
Yex cos  1.0942 10 cos77.56
3

1 1
Xm    935.9 
Yex sin  1.0942 10 sin 77.56
3

Z base 
2
Vbase

13.8k   38.09 
2

Sbase 5000k
Req  1%  Z base  0.38  ; Z eq  5%  Z base  1.9  45
Following data taken from the primary side of the below
transformer:
 Open Circuit Test ; VOC=2300 V, IOC=0.21 A, POC= 50 W
 Short Circuit Test ; VSC=47 V, ISC=6 A, PSC= 160 W

A 15kVA, 2300/230 V transformer tested to determine

(i) excitation branch components,
(ii) series impedances,
(iii) voltage regulation

46
 Under ideal conditions input power and output power
should be the same.
 But For Non-Ideal transformer, the output power is less
than the input power because of losses.
 These losses are the winding or I2R loss (copper losses) and
the core loss (hysteresis and eddy-current losses).

Pout Pout
Transformer Efficiency,  100%  100%
Pin Pout  Ploss
Vs I s cos 
  100%
Pcu  Pcore  Vs I s cos 

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A 15kVA, 2300/230 V transformer tested to determine its
excitation branch components, its series impedances, and
its voltage regulation. Following data taken from the primary
side of the transformer:
Open circuit Test Short Circuit Test
Voc = 2300 V Vsc = 47 V
Ioc = 0.21 A Isc = 6 A
Poc = 50 W Psc = 160 W

(a) Find the equivalent circuit referred to H.V. side

(b) Find the equivalent circuit referred to L. V. side
(c) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging
PF, 1.0 PF, and at 0.8 leading PF
(d) Find the efficiency at full load with PF 0.8 lagging

48
The equivalent low-side parameters of a 250kVA, 4160 –
480V, 60 Hz transformer are Req,LS = 0.00920 Ω and
Xeq,LS = 0.0433 Ω. The transformer is operated in the step-
down mode and is delivering rated current at rated voltage to
a 0.840 power-factor lagging load. Determine;
i. The no-load voltage
ii. The actual input voltage on the high-side
iii. The high-side current
iv. The input impedance
v. The voltage regulation
vi. The voltage regulation if the power factor of the load is
0.840 leading
49
1. Isolation Transformer

2. Autotransformer

3. Control Transformer

50
 In isolation transformer, the primary and secondary are
physically isolated (no electrical connection)
 Advantages of Isolation Transformer
 Voltage spikes that might occur on the primary are greatly
reduced or eliminated in the secondary
 If the primary is shorted somehow, any load connected to the
secondary is not damaged
 Example: In TV monitors to protect the picture tube from
voltage spikes in main power lines

51
 An autotransformer uses only one coil for the primary and
secondary.
 It uses taps on the coil to produce the different ratios and
voltages.

52
 A control transformer is used to reduce voltage from the
main power line to a lower voltage that operates a
machine’s electrical control system.
 The most common type of control transformer has two
primary coils (H1H2 and H3H4) and one secondary coil
(X1X2).

53
 To get 120V at the secondary from 240 V at the primary
using a control transformer.
 It is actually a parallel connection of the primary coils

V1 N1 V 240
  N1  1 N 2  (100)  200
V2 N 2 V2 120
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 To get 120V at the secondary from 480 V at the primary
using a control transformer.
 This is actually a series connection of the primary coils

V1 N1 V1 480
  N1  N 2  (100)  400
V2 N 2 V2 120
55
 1. Connect the primary coils in parallel and calculate the
secondary voltage if the primary voltage is 48 Volts and
the number of turns in each primary is 50 turns and the
secondary has 25 turns.
2. Connect the primary coils in series and calculate the
secondary voltage if the primary voltage is 48 Volts and
the number of turns in each primary is 50 turns and the
secondary has 25 turns.

N2 25
1. V2  V1  (48)  24
N1 50
N2 25
2. V2  V1  (48)  12
N1 100

56
By using both primary and
secondary coils;
1. Set the connections in the
transformer coils to
produce a turns ratio of
2:1
2. Set the connections in the
transformer coils to
produce a turns ratio of
1:1.

57