UNIT 4: Evolution

Evolution:
 Is change in genetic composition of population over successive generation caused by meiosis, hybridization, natural
selection or mutation.
 a process by w/c new species of organisms arising from previously existing forms by a series of gradual changes
overlong period.
 leads to the origin of a new species.
Five theories of the origin of life on earth
 Origin of Life is a very complex subject, and oftentimes controversial.
 Two opposing scientific theories that existed on this complex subject for a long time called intelligent design &
creationism.
 Intelligent design:
 Life developed due to a combination of natural forces & intervention of a supernatural being.
 Big bang theory:
 it has been hypothesized that complex life-forms on Earth, including humans, arose over a period of time from
simple bacteria like tiny cells by a process of self-organization similar to the evolution of the Universe of
simple material structures toward more and more complex structures.
 There are several theories about the origin of life;
1) Special creationism:
 States the origin of life to a Devine events that masterminded by supernatural being, God.
 Linked to religious thinking rather than scientific thinking evolution.
2) Spontaneous generation (abiogenesis):
 Suggests that life can evolve, spontaneously, from non-living objects.
 This theory was articulated by Aristotle.
 such as mice from corn, flies from bovine manure, maggots from rotting meat, and fish from the mud of
previously dry lakes.
Needham experiment:
 The Needham experiment was a series of experiments to support the theory of spontaneous generation:
 Needham boiled mutton broth and then cooling the broth in open container to room temperature. Later, the flask
tightly stoppered (sealed) and microbes grow a few days later.
 Eventually many of the flasks became cloudy and contained microorganisms.
 He thought organic matter commented a vital force that could confer the properties of life on nonliving matter. He
concluded that these tiny microorganisms had spontaneously generated from non-living matter of the broth.
Lazzaro Spallanzani:
 Lazzaro Spallanzani's experiment was a modified version of John Needham's experiment that disproved the theory of
spontaneous generation.
 improved on Needhams experimental design by first sealing glass flasks that contained broth.
 If the sealed flasks were placed in boiling water for 3/4 of an hour, no growth took place as long as the flasks
remained sealed.
 He proposed that air carried germs to the culture medium, but also that the external air might be contained required
for growth of animals already in the medium.
 The supporters of spontaneous maintained that heating the air in sealed flasks destroyed its ability to support life.
 Pasteur & Redi showed that micro-organisms can only arise from pre-existing organisms.
Redi:
 Designed a scientific experiment to test the spontaneous creation of maggots by placing fresh meat in jars.
 He successfully demonstrated that the maggots came from fly eggs.

Fig: Fransesco Redi’s experiment set up.

Pasteur
 made a series of flasks with long, twisted necks (“swan-neck” flasks), in which he boiled broth to sterilize it.

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  His design allowed air inside the flasks to be exchanged with air from the outside, but prevented the
introduction of any airborne microorganisms, which would get caught in the twists & bends of flasks’ necks.
 However, if the necks be broken, microorganisms would be introduced, contaminating the flasks and allowing
microbial growth within the broth.
 Louis Pasteur showed that broth (or wine) only went sour if micro-organisms were allowed to enter.
 Also no microorganisms appeared in the broth unless they were allowed to enter from the outside.
 Pasteur’s set of experiments irrefutably disproved the theory of spontaneous generation and also articulated
“Life only comes from life”.

Fig: Louis Pasteur’s experimental set up to disprove spontaneous generation

 Redi and Pasteur showed that microorganisms:
 arise from pre-existing organisms disproving the theory of spontaneous generation.
3) Eternity of life:
 States that no beginning & no end to life on earth (life is eternal or inherent).
 Claims that the Universe has always existed.
 Albert Einstein believed that the universe was unchanging.
4) Cosmozoan theory,
 proposed by Richter
 According to Cosmozoan theory life has reached this planet Earth from other cosmological structures, such as
meteorites, in the form of highly resistant spores.
Helmholz
 speculated that ‘protoplasm’ with falling meteorites in the form of spores or germs or other simple particles from
some unknown part of the universe with the cosmic dust, & subsequently evolved into various forms of life on earth.
 life on Earth originally came from elsewhere in the Universe (possibly from another planet).
 Strongly linked to the ‘eternity of life’ theory of the origin of life on Earth.
 Life has existed & will exist, and so there is no need for an explanation of its origin.

Fig: A meteorite fall to Earth

5) Biochemical origin (abiogenesis):
 Suggested that life on earth originated as a number of biochemical reactions producing organic molecules which
associated to form cells.
 The current ideas we have about how life may have evolved on Earth as a result of biochemical reactions by
natural processes.
 Biochemical origin is suggested by Oparin & Haldane.
 Aleksandr Oparin, and John Haldane independently put forward almost identical ideas.
Oparin & Haldane suggested that:
 the primitive atmosphere was reducing (having very low amounts of free oxygen) and contained ammonia, water
vapour, among other gases.
 They proposed that common gases in the early Earth atmosphere combined to form simple organic chemicals, and
Biology Grade 12 Unit 4 Evolution 2017 Page 2
 these in turn combined to form more complex molecules.
 Organic molecules could be formed from abiogenic materials in the presence of an external energy source such as
ultraviolet light & lightning.
 the first life forms appeared in the warm, primitive deep ocean & were heterotrophic (obtaining preformed
nutrients from the compounds in existence on early Earth)
 Then, the complex molecules became separated from the surrounding medium, and acquired some of the
characters of living organisms.
 They became able to absorb nutrients, to grow, to divide (reproduce), and so on.

Simple molecule of reducing atmosphere (H2, H2O, NH3, CH4, CO2, N2)
-Lighting, Volcanic activity, UV radiation
Bio monomer (Amino acid, pentose sugar, hexose sugar,…)

Macro biomolecule (protein, RNA, carbohydrate, lipid …)

Metabolic network

Protocell: have metabolism but cannot carried out reproduction.

First true cell

 Later Miller had apparently approved (tested) the Oparin-Haldane model/hypothesis by:
 mixing the basic elements to produce simple organic compounds,
 and then combining these to produce the building blocks of proteins and nucleic acid

Fig: Stanley Miller’s spark-discharge

Evolution of autotrophs on Earth
Autotroph (producers):
 is an organism that can produce its own food using light, water, carbon dioxide, or other chemicals.
Prokaryotes
 Are the first organisms that appeared about 4 billion years ago.
 Had RNA rather than DNA as their genetic material.
 Gave rise to 3 distinct lines of evolution leads to:
A. Archaebacteria
 prokaryotes including thermophilic sulphobacteria, methanobacteria & halophilic bacteria.
B. Eubacteria
 Include Ordinary bacteria & cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).
C. Eukaryotes
 Eukaryotes became numerous 1.9 to 2.1 billion years ago
 Fungi-like organisms appeared about 0.9 billion years ago. ‘
 One great change that affected the evolution of early life forms was the shift from the reducing atmosphere to an
atmosphere containing oxygen.
 This took place about 2.4 billion years ago.
 The two major types of autotrophs are chemoautotrophs & photoautotroph.

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Chemoautotrophs:
 Chemoautotrophs are organisms that obtain their energy from a chemical reaction (chemotrophs) but their source
of carbon is the most oxidized form of carbon, carbon dioxide (CO2).
 The best known chemoautotrophs are the chemolithoautotrophs that use inorganic energy sources, such as ferrous
iron (Fe2+), hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur or ammonia, & CO2 as their carbon source.
 All known chemoautotrophs are prokaryotes, belonging to the Archaea or Bacteria domains.
 They have been isolated in different extreme habitats, associated to deep-sea vents, the deep biosphere or acidic
environments.
 This form of energy conservation is considered one of the oldest on Earth.
Photoautotrophs:
 Photoautotrophs are organisms that use light energy and inorganic carbon to produce organic materials.
 Eukaryotic photoautotrophs absorb energy through the chlorophyll molecules in their chloroplasts.
 The oxygen produced by the photo-autotrophs had made it possible for aerobic respiration to evolve as an energy
releasing pathway.
 Aerobic respiration pathway releases far more energy than anaerobic pathway & more active organisms could now
evolve.
 The animals, perhaps 600 to 700 million years ago. T

Fig; Life on earth has evolved over billions of years

Theories of evolution
I. Lamarckism (Theory of transformation):
 Lamarck claimed that organisms passed on to subsequent generations traits acquired during their lifetime.
 He proposed that the driving force behind evolution were:
1) New Need:
 Changes in environment factors like light, temperature, medium, food, air etc or migration leads to origin of new
needs in living organisms.
 To fulfill these new needs, living organisms have to exert special efforts like changes in habits or behavior.
2) Use & disuse of body parts:
 The new habits involve the greater use of certain organs to meet new needs, and the disuse or lesser use of certain
other organs which are of no use in new conditions.
 Continually using a structure or process will become enlarged or more developed.
 The structure or process that is not used or little used will become reduced in size or less developed.
 E.g. Giraffes evolved elongated neck by stretching further to get leaves in trees (use).
 Penguins’ wings become smaller than other birds because penguins do not use them to fly (disuse).
3) Inheritance of acquired traits:
 Traits changed or acquired during an individual’s lifetime could be passed on to its offspring (inherited).
 But it disproved by the discoveries of genetics.
 the favorable acquired characters are inheritable & are transmitted to offsprings so that these are born fit to face the
changed environmental conditions & the chances of their survival are increased.
4) Speciation:
 Lamarck believed that in every generation, new characters are acquired and transmitted to next generation, so that
new characters accumulate generation after generation.
 After a number of generations, a new species is formed.

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Significance of Lamarckism
 It was first comprehensive theory of biological evolution.
 It nicely explains the existence of vestigial organs in animals due to their continuous disuse.
 Vestigial organs are organs that are a part of the organism that are no longer in use. That can be used to determine
the relatedness of different species. For example, the bone structures of the front flippers of a whale contain bones
of limbs that exist in mammals such as cows.
 It explains the development of strong jaw muscles & claws in the carnivores due to their continued extra use.
 It stimulated other biologists to look for the mechanism of organic mechanism.
II. Darwinism (Natural Selection):
 Proposed by Charles Darwin
 Some of Darwin’s evidence came from a visit to the Galapagos Islands.
 These are a small group of islands in the Pacific Ocean about 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador in South America.
 Darwin visited five of the Galapagos Islands and made drawings and collected specimens.
 In particular, Darwin studied the finches found on the different islands and noted that there were many similarities
between them as well as obvious differences.
 He concluded that an ‘ancestral ‘finch’ had colonized the islands from the mainland & in the absence of predators,
were able to adapt to the different conditions on the islands and eventually, evolved into different species.
 Some of the finches had, he suggested, evolved into insect eaters, with pointed beaks.
 Others had evolved into seed eaters with beaks capable of crushing the seeds.
Basic postulates of Darwinism
1) Geometric increase:
 All species tend to produce more offspring than can possibly survive.
 However, the space and the availability of food supply is limited to support the number of organisms that increase
in a geometric ratio.
2) Struggle for existence:
 Since the number of individuals produced is far more than the number that can be supported, there is an
everlasting competition between organisms all levels of life.
3) Variation under nature:
 No two individuals of a species are exactly similar and they have some differences.
 These differences are called variations and without evolution is not possible.
 Variations give rise to new characters and heredity passes them on to the next generation (inheritance of useful
variations).
4) Natural selection or survival of the fittest:
 Due to struggle for existence and useful heritable variations, only those individuals survive which show high
selective value and in the course of time they develop various adaptive modifications to suit the changed
conditions of life.
5) Origin of species:
 In the course of long periods of time the best fitted & suitable individuals survived & adjust to the nature.
 As environment is ever changing, further changes occur and thus new adaptations appear in organisms.
 The later descendants after several generations become quite distinct from their ancestors. On this way new
species appear.
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  Charles Darwin proposed that the members of a species which are best adapted to their environment will survive &
reproduce in greater numbers than others less well adapted (natural Selection).
 According to Darwin Natural Selection is the most important driving force for evolution.
 He believed that all the life on earth evolved (developed gradually) from a few common ancestors.
E.g.1, Darwin visited five of the Galapagos Islands and made drawings & collected specimens.
 Darwin studied the finches found on the different islands had many similarities (such as shape, size & colour)
& differences (diet, habitat, & beak size & shape) b/n them.
 He concluded the ‘ancestral finch’ had colonized the islands from the mainland, in absence of predors and able
to adapt to the d/t conditions on the islands and, eventually, evolve into different species.
 finches evolved based on different food sources.
 Some of the finches had evolved into insect eaters, with long pointed beaks.
 Others had evolved into seed eaters with short, hard & pointed beaks capable of crushing the seeds.
E.g.2, Antibiotic resistance is natural selection.
If they are resistant to penicillin, it will have advantage on their growth & reproduction.
 Darwin`s theory of natural selection (adaptive radiation) has 4 core ideas;

A. Geometric increase/Over production Darwin`s observations

B. Variation under nature

C. Struggle for survival/existence Darwin`s conclusion

D. Survival of the fittest/natural selection
III. Neo-Darwinism:
 is a revised version of Darwin’s theory of evolution.
 more accepted by scientists.
 Postulates of Neo-Darwinism are:
 Darwin’s original theory (Natural selection),
 genetic theory (genetic variability) &
 theories of animal behavior (reproductive isolation).
Evidence to support the theory of evolution
1) Comparative anatomy:
 assumes that organisms with similar atomical features are closely related evolutionarily & they share a common
ancestor.
 They have common descent and probably evolved from a common ancestor.
A. Homologous structure:
 organisms have similar anatomical structures, body position and embryonic development but having very
different in function in different species.
 Each possesses the same number of bones, arranged in almost the same way while they have different external
features that function in different ways
 E.g., forelimb of mammals:
 Forelimbs of human (arms) – grasping
 Forelimbs of cat (leg) - for running
 Forelimbs of whales (flipper) – for swimming
 Forelimbs of bats (wings) – for flying8

B. Analogous structures:
 Have the same function but d/t anatomy & d/t evolutionary origin (not two species share a common ancestor).
 They have evolved separately.

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  The bird wing has bones inside & is covered with feathers, while the mosquito wing has neither of these.
 E.g. Forelimbs of birds and mosquitos are similar in functions (flying) but they have d/t bone structure.

Fig: Analogy in animal

2) Comparative embryology:
 studies the way in which the embryos of vertebrates develop before they hatch or born.
 This development shows similarities which supports a common ancestry.
 closely related organisms go through similar stages in their embryonic development.
 Vertebrate embryos (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds & mammals) have gill silts & tails.
 Embryonic gill silts and tails supports that all vertebrates descended from common aquatic ancestors with gills
and tails.
 The embryonic tail does not develop into a tail in all species.
 In humans, it is reduced during development to the coccyx, or tailbone.
 As the development progress, the gill silts develop in to d/t structures. i.e.
 In fish and larval amphibians, gill silts form gills
 In human, the gill silts form Eustachian tube.
 The embryonic tail does not develop in to a tail in all species

Fig: Development of embryo

3) Paleontology:
 Is the study of fossils & ancient life.
 Fossils:
are the remains or traces of animals, plants & other organisms from the remote past.
have two categories:
A. Body fossils (Category 1):
 Are the remains of dead animal or plant.
 are parts of organism bodies.
 E.g., teeth, bones, skin, hair, leaves, wood & bark, & hardened shell of ancient invertebrate such as trilobite or
ammonite.
B. Trace fossil (Category 2)::
 made by the animal while it was living that has since hardened into stone.
 E.g., footprints, nests, burrows and coprolite (animal faeces/dung)
Fossils dating
Scientists determine the age of the fossil by:
1) Relative dating:
 Estimate the age of the fossil according their location in layers (strata).
 The sequence of strata & fossils that occur in them to deduce how the organisms have changed over time called
stratigraphy.
 The oldest strata or oldest fossils will be in the lowest layers, & more recent rocks & fossils in layers above
them, with the most recent being nearest to the surface.
2) Radiometric dating (Absolute dating):
 A method of fossil dating using radioactive isotopes to find out how old each layer.
 rely on the principle that radioactive atoms decay into other atoms over time.
 Two techniques: -
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A. Radiocarbon dating (carbon-14 dating):
 Radioactive carbon atoms (C14) decay into non-radioactive nitrogen atoms (N14).
 All radioactive isotopes have particularly half-life, the length of time it takes for half of the radioactive isotope to
change into another stable element.
 C14 is continually formed in nature by interaction of neutrons with N14 in the Earth's atmosphere.
 When living things die, the C14 starts to decay into non-radioactive nitrogen.
 Half-life:
 the time needed for half the atoms of a radioactive substance to decay.
 The rate of decay is expressed interims of a half-life of that isotope.
 Starting with a certain number of radioactive atoms, after one half-life, 50% will still be radioactive.
 After two half-lives, three quarters of the atoms will have decayed, and so on.
 After a second half-life, 50% of this 50% will have decayed & 25% of the original number will still be
radioactive.194499958
 The ratio of C-14 (radioactive carbon) to C-12 (ordinary carbon) in living things is about 1 to 1 trillion.
 Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years, meaning that 5730 years after an organism dies, half of its carbon-14 atoms
have decayed to nitrogen atoms.
 Every 5730 years (one half-life of carbon 14), only 50% of the original carbon 14 atoms will remain & the ratio of
carbon 14 to carbon 12 will be 1 to 2 trillion.
 After 11460 years, 25% of the original C-14 atoms remain & the ratio is 1 to 4 trillion. i.e.
 1st half-life = 5730 years ( i.e. 1x5730=5370) = 50% of it decays
 2nd half-life =11460 years ( i.e. 2x5370= 11460) =25% of it decays
 3rd half-life =17190 years ( i.e. 3x5370= 17190)= 12.5% of it decays
 4th half-life =22920 years ( i.e. 4x5370= 22920) = 6.25% of it decays etc.

Fig: Half-life of a radioactive element

B. Potassium–argon dating:
 works in the same way, but its half-life is 1.3 million years.
 This makes potassium–argon dating suitable for dating rocks millions of years old, whereas radiocarbon dating is
accurate with rocks up to 60 000 years old.
 A method of determining the time of origin of rocks by measuring the ratio of radioactive argon to radioactive
potassium in the rock. This dating method is based upon the decay of radioactive potassium-40 to radioactive
argon-40 in minerals and rocks; potassium-40 also decays to calcium-40.
 Radioactive potassium atoms (K40) decay into argon atoms (A40).

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 Fig: Animal evolution
4) Comparative biochemistry:
 If organisms share similar molecules & biochemical pathways, they must be closely related evolutionarily.
 Organisms that share very similar molecules and biochemical pathways are closely related evolutionarily.
 Chemicals that have been used in such analysis include DNA and protein.
 Species that are closely related are believed to have the most similar DNA and proteins; those that are distantly related
are assumed to share fewer similarities.
 For example, a comparison of DNA sequences shows that 98% of our DNA is the same as chimpanzees which
confirms that chimpanzees are the closest relatives of humans.
 Chemicals used in such analyses include:
 DNA: the base sequences of DNA from different organisms is compared
 Proteins: such as cytochrome (found in the electron transport chain of respiration).
 Haemoglobin which are compared in terms of amino acid sequences.
 Closely related species have similar DNA & proteins but distantly related share fewer similarities.
 Higher percentages of common DNA & protein of similar amino acid sequence support common descent.
 A comparison of DNA sequences shows that it is 99.9% certain that chimpanzees are humans’ closest relatives (98%
of our DNA is the same as that of chimpanzees).
 The measurement of the similarity of one species’ DNA with another species called DNA hybridisation.
 DNA hybridization:
 The technique measures the extent to which a strand of DNA from one species can bind with (or hybridise with)
a strand of DNA from another species.
 A technique that is used to compare DNA from two different species
 A technique for selectively binding specific segments of single-stranded DNA or RNA by base pairing to
complementary sequences on ssDNA molecules
 All vertebrates have a basic set of genes called the homeobox genes.
 We may share 98% of our DNA with chimpanzees, but we share 50% of our DNA with bananas.
 Differences in DNA are largely due to mutations.
 haemoglobin of lamprey (a primitive fish-like animal) has only one polypeptide chain, not four.
 Most animals have haemoglobin with four chains, but the chains do vary.

Fig: Phylogenetic (evolutionary) tree of some animals based on differences of DNA

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 The haemoglobin molecule is similar in all animals that possess it, but there are differences.
Table 4.1 Similarities & differences b/n the polypeptide chains of hemoglobin in four primate species
Species Alpha-hemoglobin Polypeptide chains Beta- Y-hemoglobin
(141 amino acid) hemoglobin(146 amino acids)
Human + + +
Chimpanzee + + +
Gorilla 1 1 1
Gibbon 3 3 3

 Key: Hemoglobin is composed of four peptide chains, made up of alpha, beta, and gamma (Y)
polypeptides. + indicates no differences in amino acids sequence from that of human, figures indicates
number of amino acid differences.
 The haemoglobin of the lamprey (a primitive fish-like animal) has only one polypeptide chain, not four.
Most animals have haemoglobin with four chains, but the chains do vary.

Fig: A phylogenetic (evolutionary) tree of some animals based on differences in DNA

 This figure shows the differences in the amino acid sequences of the alpha chains of hemoglobin of the human and
several other animals. It is presented to show how different animals may have diverged from the evolutionary line
that led to humans.
 The molecules that are used to show evolutionary relationships are those that are common to large
numbers of organisms. But, clearly, haemoglobin analysis cannot be used to include plants and algae in
any phylogenetic tree
Natural selection (adaptive radiation):
 Natural selection is the ‘driving force’ behind evolution.
 The members of a species w/c are best adapted to their environment will survive and reproduce in greater numbers
than others less well adapted.
 They will pass on their advantageous alleles to their offspring in successive generations & the frequency of these
alleles will increase in their gene pool.
 It is the process that brings about changes (over time) in populations that can, eventually, lead to different
populations of the same species to become different species.
 Those members of a species which are best adapted to their environment will survive and reproduce in greater
numbers than others that are less well adapted.
 They will pass on their advantageous alleles to their offspring and, in successive generations, the frequency of these
alleles will increase in their gene pool.
 The advantageous types will, therefore, increase in frequency in successive generations.
 lead to d/t populations of the same species becoming d/t species called speciation (the formation of new species).
Types of natural selection

Fig: A summary of the different types of natural selection

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I. Directional selection:
 occurs when one extreme phenotype is favored.
 Individuals at one extreme could have a disadvantage whereas at the other extreme have an advantage
 E.g.,
 Thicker fur (longer hair) in foxes is an advantage in a cold climate and thinner fur in foxes is an advantage in a
hot climate.

II. Stabilizing selection:

 occurs when both extreme phenotypes are selected against &
 individuals near the average (middle) are favored.
 Favours the intermediate phenotype out of the range of phenotypes.
 Tends to maintain phenotypic stability within the population from generation to generation.
 In a stable environment, individuals at both ends of the range of values are the least well adapted.
 E.g.,
 birth mass in humans.
 Babies who are very heavy or very light show a higher neonatal mortality rate (die more frequently at, or just
after, birth) than those of medium mass.
 Over time selection is operating to reduce the numbers of heavy and light babies born.

III. Disruptive selection:

 is the converse of stabilising selection.
 Individuals at both extremes of a range have advantage than the mean value.
 a rare kind of selection but very important in bringing evolutionary changes.
 favours individuals at both extremes of variation; selection is against the middle of curve.
 E.g,
 A finch with an ‘average’ length beak may not be able to obtain insects out of cracks in the bark of trees as well as
one with a longer beak may also not be able to crush seeds as well as one with a shorter, more powerful beak.
 Over time, those with the thinner, longer beaks & those with the shorter, more powerful beaks will increase in
numbers, whilst those with average length beaks will decrease in numbers.
Antibiotic resistance
 a modern example of natural selection in action.
 The spread of antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria is a simple and elegant example of evolutionary
adaptation by natural selection.
 Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics through mutations that alter the cellular targets of antibiotics
 The acquisition of resistance is a very rare event; for example, resistance mutations usually occur in less than 1 in a
million bacteria.
 However, resistant can continue to grow and reproduce under antibiotic treatments that effectively paralyse or
kill their antibiotic susceptible neighbors, this is Darwinian natural selection in its simplest form.

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 Fig: Drug resistance in bacteria is often the result of a genetic mutation -
Pattern of evolution
 Evolution over time can follow several different patterns.
 Factors such as environment and predation pressures can have different effects on the ways in which species exposed
to evolve
 There are three main types of evolution: divergent, convergent, and parallel evolution
I. Divergent evolution (Adaptive radiation):
 Organisms with the same ancestral genetic heritage migrate to d/t habitats and evolve into new species with d/t
external forms & structures b/c of different selection pressures in different environments.
 When people hear the word "evolution," they most commonly think of divergent evolution, the evolutionary pattern
in which two species gradually become increasingly different.
 This type of evolution often occurs when closely related species diversify to new habitats.
 On a large scale, divergent evolution is responsible for the creation of the current diversity of life on earth from the
first living cells.
 On a smaller scale, it is responsible for the evolution of humans and apes from a common primate ancestor.
 E.g. the evolution of the different species of finches on the Galapagos Islands & the evolution of different forms of
pentadactyl limb (limb with five digits)
II. Convergent evolution:
 the process by which unrelated organisms evolve similar structures & adapted for the same function.
 Takes place when different organisms occupy similar niches.
 The selection pressures on the populations are the same and so similar adaptations evolve over time.
 Convergent evolution takes place when species of different ancestry begin to share analogous traits because of a
shared environment or other selection pressure
 For example, whales and fish have some similar characteristics since both had to evolve methods of moving
through the same medium: water.
 E.g. the wings of a bird, a bat & the extinct pterodactyl (flying reptiles)
III. Parallel Evolution:
 occurs when two species evolve independently of each other, maintaining the same level of similarity
 Parallel evolution usually occurs between unrelated species that do not occupy the same or similar niches in a given
habitat

Fig: Types of evolution; A) Divergent B) Convergent C) Parallel

How can natural selection leads to the formation of new species?
Speciation:
 is the formation of new species from pre-existing one.
 Natural selection leads to the formation of new species.
Species:
 A group of similar organisms with a similar biochemistry, physiology & evolutionary history that can interbreed
to produce fertile offspring.
Types of Speciation:
I. Allopatric speciation:
 Occurs when a population from an existing species becomes geographically isolated.
 Occurs when the initial block to gene flow is a physical barrier that isolates the population.
Biology Grade 12 Unit 4 Evolution 2017 Page 12
  is a reproductive barrier b/n populations that are geographically separated by geological process such as river
changing course, mountain range being created & land mass separating two bodies of water.
 During this period, mutations that arise in one population cannot be passed to the other.
 As a result, d/t selection pressures in d/t environments, genetic differences b/n two populations increase.
 Eventually, the two populations will become so different that they will be unable to interbreed and ‘reproductively
isolated’& become distinct species.
II. Sympatric speciation:
 allopatric & sympatric speciation involves isolating mechanisms that prevent different populations from
interbreeding for a period of time.
 As a result they were reproductively isolated and developed into two d/t species (disruptive selection).
 Sympatric speciation is the formation of a new species within the same geographical area but prevented from
breeding in a number of ways such as;
A. Seasonal isolation – members of the two populations reproduce at different times of the year
B. Temporal isolation – members of the two populations reproduce at d/t times of the day
C. Behavioral isolation – members of the two populations have different courtship patterns
 E.g. Palms trees growing on d/t soils developed d/t breeding seasons as a result of nutrient availability at d/t times.

Polyploidy & Plant evolution

Polyploidy:
 is it important in plant evolution
 is the heritable condition of possessing more than two complete sets of chromosomes.
 are common among plants, as well as among certain groups of fish and amphibians.
 are cells that have many sets of chromosomes per cell (four sets, eight sets or more).
 occurs when an organism has more than two sets of homologous chromosomes.
 Some human liver cells have 92 chromosomes per cell (they are tetraploid).
 Tetraploid organism has four sets of homologous chromosomes per cell.
 Diploid (two sets of chromosomes in a cell) and haploid (one set of chromosomes in a cell).
 it has allowed infertile hybrids to become fertile again.
 In addition, polyploidy restoring fertility to infertile hybrids, often results in bigger plants with bigger seeds.
 When different species form hybrids, very often the hybrid cannot produce offspring because all the chromosomes
cannot form bivalents (homologous pairs) in meiosis.
 So they cannot form sex cells and cannot reproduce.
 If the chromosome number were to2double, then all chromosomes are able to form homologous pairs.
 Meiosis and sex-cell formation can take place and the hybrid is now fertile.
 Hybridisation & polyploidy are important in the evolution of modern wheat from wild grasses.
 E.g,
 If each cell of an individual contains one set of chromosomes (7), the hybrid is infertile.
 with 21 chromosomes per cell, there are not enough chromosomes for them all to form homologous pairs even if
they were homologous.
 But when the hybrid doubled its chromosome number, there were two of each chromosome.
 Now homologous pairs can form in meiosis and the hybrid is fertile.
 A new species forms when one portion of a population can no longer breed and produce fertile offspring with the rest
of the population
 That is, the two separate groups no longer share a gene pool, and each begins to follow its own, independent
evolutionary path
 Two parts of a population can become reproductively isolated in many ways, because successful reproduction
requires so many complex events
 Any interruption in courtship, fertilization, embryo formation or offspring development can be a reproductive barrier
 Reproductive isolating mechanisms fall into two major categories:
 Prezygotic reproductive barriers act before fertilization to prevent individuals of different species or

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 populations from mating.
 Postzygotic reproductive barriers act after fertilization to prevent the development of viable offspring, or to
reduce the offsprings’ fertility.
Prezygotic barriers prevent fertilization
 Mechanisms of prezygotic reproductive isolation affect the ability of two species to combine gametes and form
a zygote.
 These reproductive barriers include the following:
a) Ecological (or habitat) isolation
 A difference in habitat preference can separate two populations in the same geographic area. For example, one
species of ladybird beetle eats one type of plant, while a closely related species eats a different plant
 The two species never occur on the same host plant, although they interbreed freely in the laboratory
 The different habitat preferences are the reproductive barrier that keeps the gene pools of the two species separate
b) Temporal isolation
 Two species that share a habitat will not mate if they are active at different times of day or reach reproductive
maturity at different times of year
c) Behavioral isolation
 Behavioral differences may prevent two closely related species from mating
 The males of two species of tree frogs, for instance, use distinct calls to attract mates.
 Female frogs choose males of their own species based on the unique calls.
 Likewise, sexual selection in many birds is based on intricate mating dances
d) Mechanical isolation
 In many animal species, male and female parts fit together almost like a key in a lock.
 Any change in the shape of the gamete delivering or receiving structures may prevent groups from interbreeding.
 In plants, males and females do not copulate, but mechanical barriers still apply
e) Gametic isolation
 If a sperm cannot fertilize an egg cell, then no reproduction will occur.
 E.g, many marine organisms, such as sea urchins, simply release sperm and egg cells into the water.
 These gametes display unique surface molecules that enable an egg to recognize sperm of the same species.
 In the absence of a “match,” fertilization will not occur, and the gene pools will remain separate
Postzygotic Barriers Prevent Viable or Fertile Offspring
 Individuals of two different species may produce a hybrid zygote. Even then, postzygotic reproductive isolation
may keep the species separate by selecting against the hybrid offspring, effectively preventing genetic exchange
between the populations
 Collectively, these postzygotic barriers are sometimes called hybrid incompatibility.
 Postzygotic reproductive barriers include the following:
a) Hybrid inviability
 A hybrid embryo may die before reaching reproductive maturity, typically because the genes of its parents are
incompatible.
 Since the hybrid offspring cannot reproduce the gene pools of the parent species remain isolated from one another
b) Hybrid infertility (sterility)
 Some hybrids are infertile
 A familiar example is the mule, a hybrid offspring of a female horse and a male donkey.
 Mules are infertile because a horse’s egg has one more chromosome than a donkey’s sperm cell
 The animal can grow and develop, but meiosis does not occur in the mule’s germ cells because the chromosomes are
not homologous
c) Hybrid breakdown
 Some species produce hybrid offspring that are fertile
 When the hybrids reproduce, however, their offspring may have abnormalities that reduce their fitness
 Some second-generation hybrid offspring of the mosquito species Aedes aegypti and Aedes mascarensis, for
example, have abnormal genitalia that make mating difficult. The strong selective pressure against hybrid offspring
limits gene flow between the two mosquito species.
Human evolution
 Modern human have two features that distinguish from other primates such as monkey, apes & baboons.
 very large brain
 Bipedalism – the ability to truly walk on just two legs.
 Humans & chimpanzees both evolved from a common ancestor that lived about 6 million years ago.

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 Hominid:
 Is a term given to all modern and extinct great apes, including humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutan and all
their immediate ancestors.
 a group of species that includes all the species belonging to the genus Homo such as Ardipithecus ramidus and
Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy).
Hominin:
 Is a term given to human and all of our extinct bipedal ancestors- those ancestors who walked upright on two feet
 any member of the genus Homo.
 This includes modern humans (Homo sapiens), Neanderthals and Homo erectus.
 Modern humans belong to the family hominidae.

Fig: time line for the major hominin & hominid species
Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardi) Ardipithecus afarensis (Lucy) Homo hablis Homo erectus Homo
neanderthalensis Homo sapiens

Fig: Evolutionary tree of modern primates

 Over the details, they all agreed about the idea, a line of evolution that has branched to give the different groups of
primates (including apes and humans) that exist today has existed in not too distant past.

Fig: Evolutionary tree of human and great apes

 Branching points in the evolutionary tree represent ancestors
 At these points it is assumed that an ancestral type became divided into at least two populations which subsequently
evolved along different lines.
 For example, humans and chimpanzees both evolved from a common ancestor that lived about 6 million years ago
 So far, we have talked about ‘humans’ rather than the one specific type of human (ourselves- Homo sapiens) that

Biology Grade 12 Unit 4 Evolution 2017 Page 15

 now inhabits the planet.
 There were other humans before us and, before them, what we might call ‘pre-humans’. However, all humans belong
to the genus Homo.

Fig: A timeline for major hominin and hominid species

Lucy & Ardi
 are important fossils to explain the evolution of modern humans & chimpanzees came from a common ancestor.
 the physical and behavioral traits shared by all people originated from apelike ancestors
Lucy:
 Discovered by Donald Johanson & Tom Gray in 1974 at Hadar in Ethiopia.
 is a fossil dated at about 3.2 million years.
 was an adult female of about 25 years and belonged to the species Australopithecus afarensis.
 was partly arboreal (tree-dwelling).
 was about 107 cm tall and about 28 kg in weight.
 had a brain about the same size as a chimpanzee.
 Her pelvis, femur (the upper leg bone) & tibia show that she was bipedal (walk upright on two legs).
 The proportions of her humerus & femur were mid-way b/n modern humans & chimpanzees.
 Bipedalism came before big brains.
Ardi:
 Ardi fossil was first discovered in 1992, in Afar dessert in Ethiopia.
 was 1.2 million years older than Lucy
 was female & belonged to the species Ardipithecus ramidus.
 She was also bipedal.
 At 4.4 million years old, Ardi is the nearest fossil to the ‘common ancestor’ of humans & chimpanzees.
 This find proves that the common ancestor of humans & chimpanzees could not have resembled a chimpanzee, as
chimpanzees are not truly bipedal.
How has brain size changed during human evolution?
 Species of Australopithecus have a brain b/n 0.7% & 1.0% of their body mass whereas modern humans have a brain
b/n 1.8% & 2.3% of their body mass.
 The brain of Homo sapiens use 25% of the resting energy requirement, compared with 8% in the great apes.
 A larger brain size allows humans to:
 run faster & more upright posture
 plan in advance to avoid attack
 develop, & use tools & weapons

Fig: Brain size in different hominids

 These abilities depend on other physical adaptations such as;

Biology Grade 12 Unit 4 Evolution 2017 Page 16

  longer legs, more nimble fingers and a straighter spine, but, without larger brain to co-ordinate activities,
physical changes would not confer the same advantage.
Are human still evolving?
 Modern humans first appeared in Africa and have migrated to all other parts of the world.
 As humans moved from Africa into different areas of the world, they encountered different selection pressures in the
different environments resulted in the different human populations.
 E.g., If humans encountered colder climates,
 shorter, squatter/thicker body shape to reduces surface-area-to volume ratio &
 so reduces the rate of heat loss by radiation
 increase layer of adipose tissue under the skin to act as insulation
 increase hairiness to reduce heat loss by convection
 Physical & genetic differences were emerging b/n the different races.
However, they will not evolve into distinct (separate) species b/c of:
 increasing interbreeding b/n the races as a result of increased travel
 increasing ability to modify the environment
Mutation
 Mutation is random change in genetic information.
 A mutation can be caused by several factors but is divided into two parts.
 spontaneous mutation: if the agent that caused the mutation cannot be identified.
 Induced mutation: if the mutation can be identified
 Substances that cause mutations are radiation, x-ray, ultra-violet radiation, nuclear radiation and certain chemical
substances.
 These agents can also be called mutagenic agents or mutagens.
 There can be two types of mutations:
 large structural changes involving whole chromosomes or parts of chromosomes, called chromosomal mutations
 changes affecting only a single nucleotide in DNA, called point mutations.
1. Point mutation (gene mutation)
 A point mutation is a change in a single nucleotide base in a DNA sequence. This type of mutation is usually
less serious than a chromosomal alteration.
 Is the change that involves only a single base, in which one of the bases in the DNA sequence of a gene is altered,
usually by being copied wrongly when the DNA replicates.
 These mutations occur quite randomly when the DNA is replicating & each involves a change to just one base.
 but the change to the gene can be dramatic and the result can be that the protein the gene should code for is not made
at all or a different protein is made
 There are several types of point mutation,
 Substitution
 Addition
 deletions
Table: Description of point mutation
Type Description Example Effect
Silent Mutated codon codes for CAA None
the same amino acid (glutamine)→CAG(glutamine)
Missense Mutated codon codes for CAA (glutamine)→CCA(proline) Variable
the same amino acid
Nonsense Mutated codon is CAA (glutamine)→UAA(stop) Serious
premature stop codon usually
A. Substitution
 One base is replaced by a different base. E.g. Guanine replaces thymine.
Original sequence Mutated sequence
GGG ATT GAG GGG ATG GAG
Glycine isoleucine glutamic acid Glycine methionine glutamic acid
 The triplet ATT has been changed to ATG (no other triplet is affected).
 The original triplet, ATT, codes for the amino acid isoleucine.
 However, the new triplet, ATG, codes for methionine.
 As a result, a different protein will be synthesised, which may or may not be significantly different from the original.
 One different amino acid in a protein does not always make a functional change.
Biology Grade 12 Unit 4 Evolution 2017 Page 17
 If the substitution had been by any base other than guanine b/c the DNA code is degenerate, the triplet code for
isoleucine & the same protein would have been synthesised.
 Other substitutions can result in a ‘stop’ triplet.
 In this case transcription ceases when it reaches the stop code and a non-functional mRNA results.

 A substitution of just one base in the sixth triplet of the gene coding for one of the four polypeptides in the
haemoglobin alters the triplet from GAG to GTG.
 This results in the amino acid valine replacing glutamate in the polypeptide chain.
 The d/t haemoglobin formed results sickle-cell anemia.
 Sickle-cell anemia: a condition caused by a mutation that affects the structure of haemoglobin in RBC causing the
RBC to sickle under low oxygen tension.
 If a person inherits two copies of the mutated gene, then all of their RBC will contain the abnormal haemoglobin that
causes the RBC to collapse into sickle-shaped cells under conditions of low oxygen concentration.
 The sickled cells often fracture and stick together and block capillaries.

B. Addition and deletion

 In a deletion mutation, a base is ‘missed out’ during replication,
 whereas in additions, an extra base is added.
 Both deletion and additions are more significant mutations than substitutions.
 Substitutions affect just one triplet (no overall effect) – the same protein may still be produced.
 Deletion, addition & insertion causes frame shift mutations.
 A totally different mRNA is produced (if one is produced at all) and a non- functional protein or no protein
at all. Sometimes, a whole triplet is missed out or inserted. This will result in either one extra or one fewer
codon in the mRNA. In turn, this will lead to one extra or one fewer amino acid in the polypeptide chain.
 E.g. look of this sequence of letters:
 THEMANWASHOTANDRANFORHISHAT. If we give this a ‘reading frame’ of three letters, it becomes:
 THE MAN WAS HOT AND RAN FOR HIS HAT and it makes sense.
 But if we take out S at the end of WAS (a deletion mutation), it becomes:
 THE MAN WAH OTA NDR ANF ORH ISH AT no makes sense.
 In genetic terms it is miss-sense coding. A totally different mRNA is produced (if one is produced at all) and a
non-functional protein or no protein at all.
 Sometimes, a whole triplet is missed out or inserted. This will result in either one extra or one fewer codon in the
mRNA.
 In turn, this will lead to one extra or one fewer amino acid in the polypeptide chain.

Figure: Types of point mutation

Biology Grade 12 Unit 4 Evolution 2017 Page 18

Causes of causes point mutations:
 Errors during DNA replication: When cells divide, DNA is copied. Sometimes, errors can occur in the copying
process, leading to point mutations.
 Exposure to mutagens: Certain chemicals, radiation, and other environmental factors can damage DNA, causing point
mutations.
Consequences of gene mutations:
 Silent Mutations
 No effect: If the mutation occurs in a non-coding region of the DNA or changes a codon to another codon that
codes for the same amino acid, it may have no noticeable effect on the protein.
 Missense Mutations
 Altered amino acid: If the mutation changes a codon to one that codes for a different amino acid, the resulting
protein may have a different structure or function.
 Consequences: This can lead to a variety of effects, including:
o Loss of function: The protein may be unable to perform its normal role.
o Gain of function: The protein may acquire a new or altered function.
o Altered stability: The protein may be less stable or prone to degradation.
 Nonsense Mutations
 Frameshift Mutations
2. Chromosomal mutation
 A chromosomal mutation is a mutation involving a long segment of DNA. Chromosomal mutation occurs when
there is any change in the arrangement or structure of the chromosomes.
 Chromosomal mutation occurs most often during meiosis at crossing over in prophase I.
 There are several different mutation types that result in a change in the structure of a chromosome such as duplication,
deletion, inversion and translocation.
 They are much bigger events than point mutations and usually result in the death of a cell.
 They may also affect the whole organism.
 For example, if essential parts of the DNA are affected by chromosomal mutations, a foetus may be aborted. There are
different types of chromosome mutations.

Fig: Types of Chromosomal mutations

Types of Chromosomal Mutations
 Most chromosomal mutations are either Chromosomal Mutations I or Chromosomal mutations II.
 Chromosomal Mutations I involve the processes of inversion, deletion, duplication/amplification or translocation
 Chromosomal Mutations II involves aneuploidy and polyploidy.
Chromosomal mutations I:
 Chromosomal mutations I mutations alter the structure of the chromosome since they tend to break and these pieces
often form sticky ends.
Inversion:
 Inversion chromosomal mutation is a kind of chromosomal mutations I and its segments are reversed from end to end.
 A piece of the chromosome is removed then reattached but in the opposite direction than it was originally.
 When this does not include the center or the centromere of the chromosome, it is called paracentric inversion. When
the inversion does include the centromere, it is pericentric inversion.
Deletion:
 Also known as partial monosomies, these occur when a piece of a chromosome accidentally gets removed or deleted.
 There can be cases with one piece deleted at the end (terminal deletion), two deletions — one deleted within the
chromosome, and one on the end (interstitial deletion).
 Microdeletions also occur when the deletions in the chromosomes are too small to be detected.
Duplication/Amplifications:
 As the name implies, an extra copy of a segment or the entire chromosome is present in the nucleus.
 These are also known as partial trisomies.

Biology Grade 12 Unit 4 Evolution 2017 Page 19

 Often an organism that usually has two copies of a chromosome will have three in the case of duplication.
 This can happen anywhere along the chromosome whether in the middle or on the ends.
Translocation:
 Translocation chromosomal mutation follows the route of biological translocation.
 This happens when a segment of a chromosome breaks off and then relocates to a completely different chromosome.
 This creates fusion chromosomes as one type of chromosome fuses with another.
 Reciprocal translocation occurs when pieces of chromosomes “swap” places.
 Robertsonian translocation occurs when a segment of a chromosome is attached to another chromosome, causing an
elongation of it.
 These can be balanced or unbalanced, where the chromosome is fully functional with no missing genetic information
(balanced)
 or with important missing pieces and cannot function as normal (unbalanced).
 The translocation of causes the common genetic mutation of down syndrome chromosome 21 onto the 14th
chromosome
Chromosomal Mutations II
 The general category of these is called heteroploidy since they cause a mutation by changing the number of
chromosomes present in the cell.
 Chromosomal mutation categories consist of aneuploidy and polyploidy.
Aneuploidy:
 This mutation either causes the loss or addition of a chromosome by the contortion of the chromosome set.
 Nondisjunction during meiosis or mitosis usually results in this mutation.
Polyploidy:
 This mutation causes the creation of two sets of genomes within an organism.
 It is not usually common naturally however, it can be observed in some plants.
 It usually causes effects like giantism and the reduction of fertility.
The Advantages of Chromosomal Mutations:
 In some cases, chromosomal mutations can benefit the organism.
 Some mutations can help the organisms to survive better than others.
For example: Lactose tolerance became an advantage to have over others when numerous populations depended on
cows and goats as sources of food.
 On the other hand, chromosomal mutations can be dangerous and even detrimental to the life of living organisms.
 Some of these can cause numerous problems within animals, plants, and humans.
Genetic Disorder:
 These are specific disorders or disabilities caused by mutations within the organism’s DNA.
 These can be small genetic issues that may barely affect the individual or larger issues that may bring major concerns
to the individual.
 A chromosomal disorders list can be seen below:
 Trisomy 21: Down Syndrome
 Trisomy 18
 Trisomy 13
 Klinefelter Syndrome
 XYY Syndrome
 Turner Syndrome
 Triple X Syndrome
Genetic Drift:
 is a mechanism of evolution in which allele frequencies of a population change over generations due to chance events.
 is change due to "sampling error" in selecting the alleles for the next generation from the gene pool of the current
generation.
 A sampling error is a deviation in the sampled value versus the true population value.
 Allele frequencies can change due to chance alone is called genetic drift.
 Drift is a binomial sampling error of the gene pool. What this means is, the alleles that form the next generation’s
gene pool are a sample of the alleles from the current generation.
 When sampled from a population, the frequency of this alleles differs slightly due to chance alone.
 Alleles can increase or decrease in frequency due to drift.
 The average expected change in allele frequency is zero, since increasing or decreasing in frequency is equally
probable.

Biology Grade 12 Unit 4 Evolution 2017 Page 20

 A small percentage of alleles may continually change frequency in a single direction for several generations just as
flipping a fair coin may, on occasion, result in a string of heads or tails.
 A very few new the frequency of mutant alleles can drift to fixation in manner
 The variance in the rate of change of allele is greater in small populations than in large populations.
 Variance is a measure of how data points differ from the mean.
 Let's make the idea of drift more concrete by looking at an example in figure bellow.
 we have a very small rabbit population made up of 8 brown individuals
(genotype BB or Bb) & 2 white individuals (genotype bb).
 Initially, the frequencies of the B & b alleles are equal. What if, purely by
chance, only the 5 circled.
 The allele frequencies of the 5 lucky rabbits are perfectly represented in the
second generation.
 the frequencies of B & b in the population have shifted to 0.7 & 0.3
respectively b/c the 5-rabbit "sample" in the previous generation had
different allele frequencies than the population as a whole.
 From this second generation, what if only two of the BB offspring survive
and reproduce to yield the third generation?
 In this series of events, by the third generation, the b allele is completely lost
from the population. However, the overall rate of genetic drift (measured in
substitutions per generation) is independent of population size.
 While a constant mutation rate provides a steady influx of new alleles, the
effective rate of allele loss due to drift differs between large and small
populations. This is because large populations will have more alleles in the
gene pool, but they will lose them more slowly.
Fig: Example of genetic drift in a
rabbit population
Smaller populations will have fewer alleles, but these will quickly cycle through. This assumes that mutation is constantly
adding new alleles to the gene pool & selection is not operating on any of these alleles
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:
 The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium is a foundational principle in population genetics that describes the conditions
under which allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant (Do Not Change) from generation
to generation.
 The study of population genetics relies on the intimate relationship between allele frequencies and genotype
frequencies
 It is essentially a model that helps us understand how genetic variation is maintained within a population over time.
 Each genotype’s frequency is the number of individuals with that genotype, divided by the total size of the
population.
 For example, if 64 of the 100 individuals in a population are homozygous recessive, then the frequency of that
genotype is 64/100 or 0.64.
 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is the highly unlikely situation in which allele frequencies and genotype frequencies
do not change from one generation to the next.
 It occurs only in populations that meet the following assumptions:
 Natural selection does not occur;
 Mutations do not occur, so no new alleles arise;
 The population is infinitely large, or at least large enough to eliminate random changes in allele frequencies;
 Individuals mate at random; and
 Individuals do not migrate into or out of the population.
 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is named after mathematician Godfrey H. Hardy & physician Wilhelm Weinberg.
 They independently developed two simple equations that represent the relationship between allele frequencies and
genotype frequencies.
 To understand their logic, begin by assuming that a gene has only 2 possible alleles, with frequencies p & q.
 The first equation represents the frequencies of both alleles in the population: P + q =1
 The two frequencies add up to 1 b/c the two alleles represent all the possibilities in the population.
 For example, the frequency of the dark fur allele (D) is 0.6; the frequency of the alternative allele d,
which confers tan fur, is 0.4. (Tally the D and d alleles in the picture of the ferrets to verify these
numbers.)
Biology Grade 12 Unit 4 Evolution 2017 Page 21
 At Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, we can use allele frequencies to calculate genotype frequencies,
according to the second equation. p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
 In this equation, the proportion of the population with genotype DD equals p2 (0.36 for our ferrets) and the proportion
with genotype dd equals q2 (0.16).
 To calculate the frequency of the heterozygous class, multiply pq by 2 (0.48).
 Since the homozygotes and the heterozygotes account for all possible genotypes, the sum of their frequencies must
add up to 1.

 Hardy—Weinberg Equilibrium. At Hardy—Weinberg equilibrium, allele frequencies remain constant from one
generation to the next; evolution does not occur.”

 There are two major types of genetic drift: genetic bottlenecks and the founder effect.
 The genetic bottleneck effect
 The bottleneck effect is an extreme example of genetic drift that happens when the size of a population is severely
reduced.
 Events like natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, fires) can decimate a population, killing most individuals and
leaving behind a small, random assortment of survivors.
 The allele frequencies prior to the natural disasters may be very different from those of the population after the event,
and some alleles may be missing entirely.
 The smaller population will also be more susceptible to the effects of genetic drift for generations (until its numbers
return to normal), potentially causing even more alleles to be lost.
 Imagine a bottle filled with marbles, which, represent individuals in a population.
 If a bottleneck event occurs, a small, random assortment of individuals survive the event & pass through the
bottleneck (and into the cup), while the vast majority of the population is killed off (remains in the bottle).
 The genetic composition of the random survivors is now the genetic composition of the entire population.
 A population bottleneck yields a limited and random assortment of individuals.
 This small population will now be under the influence of genetic drift for several generations.

Fig: Bottleneck effect eliminates genes from a population

Biology Grade 12 Unit 4 Evolution 2017 Page 22

The founder effect:
 The founder effect is another extreme example of genetic drift that occurs when a small group of individuals breaks
off from a larger population to establish a colony.
 The new colony is isolated from the original population, and the founding individuals may not represent the full
genetic diversity of the original population.
 That is, alleles in the founding population may be present at different frequencies than in the original population, and
some alleles may be missing altogether.
 The small size of the new colonies means that they will experience strong genetic drift for generations.
 The founder effect is similar in concept to the bottleneck effect, but it occurs via a different mechanism (colonization
rather than catastrophe).

Fig: Founder effect eliminates genes from a population

4.1.8. Gene flow (immigration and emigration)
 Gene flow also called migration is any movement of individuals, and/or the genetic material they carry from one
population to another.
 Gene flow includes lots of different kinds of events, such as pollen being blown to a new destination or people
moving to new cities or countries.
 If gene versions are carried to a population where those gene versions previously did not exist, gene flow can be a
very important source of genetic variation.
 In Figure below, the gene erosion for brown coloration moves from one population to another.

Fig: Gene flow (immigration)

 Immigration is when new organisms join a population, changing allele frequencies. Emigration is when members of a
population leave, taking with them their genes.
 These phenomena change the overall balance of the gene pool of the populations.
 Gene transfer is the flow of alleles from one species to another. Horizontal gene transfer is especially common in
bacteria
4.1.9. Causes of species extinction
 Evidence suggests that anthropogenic effects and natural disaster played significant role for the direct and indirect
causes of species extinction.

Biology Grade 12 Unit 4 Evolution 2017 Page 23