EVOLUTION- By Dr.

Sunita Saxena
EVOLUTION
TOPICS TO BE COVERED-
• Origin of Life
• Evolution of Life Forms - A Theory
• What are the Evidences for Evolution?
• What is Adaptive Radiation?
• Biological Evolution
• Mechanism of Evolution
• Hardy - Weinberg Principle
• A Brief Account of Evolution
• Origin and Evolution of Man
 INTRODUCTION
• “Evolutionary Biology” is the
study of history of life forms
on Earth.

• What exactly is evolution?

• To understand the changes in

flora and fauna that have
occurred over millions of
years on earth, we must have
an understanding of the
context of origin of life, i.e.,
evolution of earth, of stars
and indeed of the universe
itself.
Evolution = Change Over Time
 INTRODUCTION
• What follows is the longest of
all the construed and
conjectured stories.

• This is the story of “Origin of

Life” and Evolution of life forms
or biodiversity on planet earth
in the context of evolution of
earth and against the
background of evolution of
universe itself.
 Important points
• Universe originated about 20 bya.
• Solar System & Earth were
formed about 4.5 bya.
• Life appeared about 4 bya.
• Non-cellular form of life
appeared- 3 bya.
• First cellular form of life- 2 bya
ORIGIN OF LIFE
• When we look at stars on a clear night sky we are, in a way, looking back in time.
• Stellar distances are measured in light years.
• What we see today is an object whose emitted light started its journey millions of year back
and from trillions of kilometers away and reaching our eyes now.
• However, when we see objects in our immediate surroundings we see them instantly and
hence in the present time.
• Therefore, when we see stars we apparently are peeping into the past.
• The origin of life is considered a unique event in the history of universe.

• Universe- The universe is cluster of galaxies. Galaxies contain stars and clouds of gas &
dust. Considering the size of universe, Earth is indeed a speck.

• The universe is vast. Relatively speaking the earth itself is almost only a speck.

• The universe is very old – almost 20 billion years old.

• The Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the Origin of Universe.

Big Bang Theory
• Given by Abbe Lemaitre.
• According to it, the universe originated about 20 billion years ago due to a Thermonuclear
explosion. This thermonuclear explosion is called Big-bang.
• Flat-disc like structure is called SOLAR - NEBULA formed. About 4.5 billion years ago, the
origin of our Solar system took.
• The very hot central part of this Solar Nebula became still hotter & converted into The Sun.
• Now, due to condensation of atoms & dust particles moving around the sun, formation of
the other planets took place [Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune].
• The solid part of our planet earth was called Lithosphere & the gaseous part was known
as Atmosphere.
• When the earth's surface cooled down and its temperature decreased to 100°C water
formed on it.
Ancient Theories for Origin of Life
Theory of Special Creation

Cosmic Panspermia Theory

Theory of Spontaneous Generation

(Abiogenesis / Autogenesis)

Theory of Biogenesis

Oparin – Haldane Theory (Modern Theory)

Ancient Theories for Origin of Life

1. Theory of Special creation –

• The greatest supporter of this theory was Father Suarez.
• According to this theory life was created by supernatural power.
• The Earth is about 4000 years old.
• According to Bible life and everything was created by God in 6 days.
2. Cosmozoic Theory –
• Proposed by Richter.
• Protoplasm reached on earth in the form of spores or other simple particles from some
unknown part of the universe with cosmic dust and they gave rise to various forms of
life.
• Cosmic Panspermia theory –
a. Proposed by Arrhenius.
b. According to this theory organisms existed throughout the universe and their spores
could freely travel through space from one star to the other.
3. Theory of Spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis or Autogenesis) –
• This hypothesis was supported by ancient Greek philosophers like Thales,
Anaximander, Xenophanes, Plato. Empedocles; Aristotle.

• According to this theory “Life was originated from non living things spontaneously”.

• They believed that the mud of the Nile river could give rise to frogs, snakes,
crocodiles.

• Abiogenesis was strongly supported by Von Helmont. He claimed formation of mice

in 21 days. If a sweat soaked dirty shirt is kept in wheat barn.
5. Theory of Biogenesis –

 Harvey (1651) and Huxley (1870)

• “Omnis vivum ex ovo or vivo”.
• New organisms can be originated on earth only by pre-existing life.
• This theory rejected the theory of Spontaneous generation but cannot explain origin of
life.
• To prove Biogenesis and to disprove abiogenesis experiments were performed by- Redi,
Spallanzani, Pasteur.
 Francesco Redi (Italian 1668) –
• He took cooked meat in three jars, one was uncovered, the second was covered with
parchment and the third was air tight. He observed that maggots developed only in the
uncovered jar while maggots could not develop in the meat in closed jars. This proved
that larvae were formed from eggs laid by the flies in open jars. Since the meat in closed
jars could not be visited by flies so no larvae could develop.
• Therefore “Life originated from pre existing life”.
 Lazzaro Spallanzani (Italian 1767) –
• He boiled vegetables and meat to prepare a sterilized nutritive soup and he kept some
of it in air sealed flasks and some in loosely corked flasks. He observed that the soup in
sealed flask remained sterile while micro organisms appeared in the soup in loosely
corked flasks. Thus, even micro organisms were formed from pre existing ones in the air
rather then spontaneously.
 Louis Pasteur (French 1862) –
• Pasteur is popular for Germ Theory of Diseases or Germ theory and he disproved
Abiogenesis. He prepared sterilized syrup of sugar and yeast by boiling them in flasks. He
took two flasks one of broken neck and another of curved neck (Swan neck flask).
• Swan Neck flask Experiment.
• No life appeared in swan neck flask because germ laden dust particles in the air were
trapped by the curved neck which serves as filter while in broken neck flask colonies of
microorganism were developed.
swan neck steam microorganisms broken
flask in atmosphere neck
air

yeast & sugar

bacteria
solution
present
sterilized

burner no
bacteria

A B C
Modern Theories for Origin of Life

• Oparin-Haldane Theory of Origin of Life-

• Naturalistic Theory or Theory of Chemical Evolution
• This theory was proposed by Russian Scientist A.I. Oparin and J.B.S Haldane(England
born Indian scientist) Oparin's theory was published in his book “Origin of Life”.

• Important Points-
• Oparin's theory is based on Artificial Synthesis. So, also called as Artificial synthetic
Theory.
• 1st life originated in the water of oceans. So, water is essential for Origin of life.
• There is no life on moon due to absence of water.
• At the time of origin of life free O2 was absent, so first life was anaerobic.
• In the primitive atmosphere free oxygen was present but complete oxygen consumed
in composition so primitive atmosphere of earth was reducing.
• Oxygen was reproduced by photosynthesis and atmosphere converted in oxidizing.
Chemical Evolution (Chemogeny)-
1. The atomic stage
• The earth was originated about 4.5 billion years ago. Early earth had free atoms of all
elements which are essential for the formation of protoplasm. The lightest atoms like
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen formed the primitive atmosphere.
2. Molecular stage (Origin of molecules and simple Inorganic compounds)
• Free atoms combined to form molecules and simple inorganic compounds.
• Due to presence of high temperature, active hydrogen atoms combined with all oxygen
atoms to form water and leaving no free oxygen.
• Thus the primitive atmosphere was reducing (without free oxygen) unlike present
oxidizing atmosphere (with free oxygen).
• Hydrogen atoms also combined with nitrogen to from NH3.
• The first molecular compounds formed were probably water and Ammonia.
• These Lighter elements also formed CO2, CO, N2 , H2 etc.
3. Origin of early organic compounds
• The nitrogen and carbon of the atmosphere combined with metallic atoms forming
nitrides and carbides. Water vapor and metallic carbides reacted to form to first organic
compound Methane (CH4). Later on hydrogen cyanide (HCN) was formed. Water which
formed on earth due to high temperature evaporated so clouds were formed. Water
vapor changed into rain drops and by the collection of water on earth primitive oceans
were formed.

4. Origin of simple organic compounds

• Water of primitive oceans contained large amount methane, ammonia, hydrogen,
cyanides, carbides, nitrides. These early compounds interacted and formed simple
organic compounds like aldehyde, Ketones. Alcohols Pentose and hexose sugar, Amino
Acids, Glycerol, Fatty Acids, Purines, Pyrimidines etc.
• Energy was obtained from U.V. Rays of sunlight, cosmic rays and heat of volcanic
eruptions.
5. Origin of complex organic compounds –
• The small simple organic molecules combined to form large complex organic molecules.
• Example –
• Amino acids Joined to form polypeptides and proteins, which were non-enzymatic.
• Simple sugar units combined to form polysaccharides.
• Fatty acids and glycerols united to form fats and lipids.
• Sugar, nitrogenous bases, phosphates combined into nucleotides which polymerized
into nucleic acid, which unable to replicate.

These macromolecules forms main component of protoplasm hence the possibility of

origin of life in primitive oceans could be established. After long time the water of primitive
oceans became rich mixture of organic compounds as a result of chemical evolution.
Haldane called this saturated water of oceans as prebiotic soup or hot dilute soup.
Biological Evolution (Biogeny)
Isolation of Organic Molecules-
Origin of Protobionts-
• Macromolecules which were synthesized abiotically in primitive oceans later came
together and formed large colloidal drop like structure named as Protobionts.
• It is believed that they were the clusters of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic
acids etc.
• These protobionts were unable to reproduce but they could grow by absorbing
molecules from their surroundings and cane exhibit simple metabolism.
• Protobionts were also synthesized artificially by some scientist in laboratory.
• For Example-
1. Oparin prepared some protobionts without lipid membrane he called them
Coacervates.
2. Similarly Sydney Fox synthesized some microscopic protenoid bodies with a lipid
coat and called them Microspheres.
Origin of Prokaryotes-
• Nucleic acids developed the ability of self duplication due to sudden change called
Mutation.
• Nucleic acids & proteins combined to form Nucleoproteins. (First sign of life)
• Clusters of nucleoproteins surrounded by lipid coat called Protocell.
• These first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 bya.
• They would have been giant molecules (RNA, Protein, Polysaccharide).
Evolution of Modes of Nutrition-
• As a result of mutation protocells became more complex & efficient to use the materials
available in the surrounding medium & evolved into Prokaryotic cells.
• The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till about 2000 mya.
• The first living beings were single celled bacteria like prokaryotes with naked DNA.
• They were probably Chemo-heterotrophs & Anaerobic.
• Some of the Chemo-heterotrophs evolved into Chemo- Autotrophs. E.g. Iron bacteria,
Nitrifying Bacteria.
• Non-Oxygenic Photosynthetic bacteria E.g. Sulphur bacteria
• Oxygenic Photosynthetic bacteria E.g. Cyanobacteria
Formation of Ozone Layer-
• As the number of photoautotrophs increased, oxygen was released in the sea and
atmosphere.
• Free oxygen then reacted with methane and ammonia and transformed methane and
ammonia into carbon dioxide and free nitrogen.
• Oxygen releasing prokaryotes first appeared at least 2.5 billion years ago.
• As oxygen accumulated in atmosphere, the ultraviolet light changed some of oxygen
into ozone.
Origin of Eukaryotes-
• These developed from primitive prokaryotic cells about 1.5 billion years ago.
• There are two views regarding the origin of eukaryotes.
 Evidences in favor of Chemical Evolution

• Experimental evidence for formation

of simple organic compounds.

• By Stanly Miller & Harold Urey (1953).

• In this experiment Miller took the mixture of methane, ammonia and hydrogen (ratio 2 :
1 : 2) in a large flask and passed steam at 800 o C over it by boiling water and connecting
it with a glass tube.

• The conditions on earth were – high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing

atmosphere containing CH4, NH3, etc.

• Electric spark discharged in the mixture by using two tungsten electrodes as source of
energy.
• After 18 days this fluid was collected and analyzed. This dark red fluid was found to
contain.

• Simple amino acids – Glycine, alanine, aspartic acid.

• Simple organic acids – Formic, acetic, oxalic, lactic, succinic acids.

• Pentose, hexose, aldehyde, ketone etc.

6. Evolution term introduced by - Herbert Spencer.
C, H, O, N

NH3, H2O, CO2, CO, N2 , H2 etc

CH4 , HCN

Aldehyde, ketones, Alcoholes, Pentose, hexose, amino acid,

Glycerole, fatty acids, purine, pyrimidines etc

Protein, Polysaccharide, Fat, Nucleic acid

Coacervates

Protocell

Prokaryotic cell

Eukaryotic cell.
 Theories of Biological Evolution
THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL
EVOLUTION

LAMARCK Hugo de Vries

• Theory of Inheritance
DARWIN • Theory of Mutation
• It states that evolution • States that new species
of life forms occurred by • Theory of Natural Selection are formed due to
use and disuse of organs. single large mutation.
• It states that all species of
organisms arise and develop
through the natural selection of
small, inherited variations that
increase the individual's ability to
compete, survive and reproduce.
Theories of Organic Evolution

• Lamarckism :
• First theory of evolution was proposed by Jean Bapttiste de Lamarck (1744 - 1829).
• Lamarck had said that evolution of life forms had occurred but driven by use and disuse
of organs.
• He gave the examples of Giraffes who in an attempt to forage eaves on tall trees had to
adapt by elongation of their necks.
• As they passed on this acquired character of elongated neck to succeeding generations,
Giraffes, slowly, over the years, came to acquire long necks.
• Nobody believes this conjecture any more.
Basic Concept of Lamarckism
1. Effect of environment and new needs:
• Environment influences all type of organisms. Changing environment gives rise
to new needs. New needs or desires produce new structures and change habit of
the organism.
2. Use and disuse of organs:
• If an organ is constantly used, it would be better developed whereas disuse of
organ result in its degeneration.
3. Inheritance of acquired character:
THEORY OF LAMARCK
• The ancestors of giraffes
● Theory of inheritance of had a short neck, but they
acquired characters. had the habit of eating
● It states that evolution of life leaves from the tall trees.
forms occurred by use and
disuse of organs.
● Evolution by use of organs: The
long neck of giraffe is due to
• As they reached for the high leaves
continuous elongation to forage their necks became longer.
leaves on tall trees.

• The character of longer neck passed on

to their descendants, making a long
necked giraffe
Example in support of Lamarckism :
• Long neck and high fore limb of Giraffe.
• Snakes lost their legs.
• Deer's became good runners by the development of strong limbs and streamlined body.
• Retractile claws of carnivorous animals.

Limitations of Lamarck’s theory:

• New organs are not formed in organisms by their wish or requirement.
• It is not necessary that the acquired characters transmit into a new generation.
 Darwinism
• Charles Robert Darwin was born on 12th Feb. 1809 in England.
• Darwin traveled by H.M.S. Beagle.
• The ship left on Dec. 27, 1831 and returned on Oct. 2, 1836.
• He travelled South America, South Africa, Australia and Galapagos Islands.
• Darwin was influenced by two books.
1. "Principles of population" of Malthus.
2. "Principles of Geology" of Charles Lyell.
The main features of theory of Natural Selection are as follows –

1. Over production: (High rate of Reproduction)

• All organisms have capability to produce enormous number of offspring, organisms
multiply in geometric ratio.
• Example -
• Plants produce thousands of seeds.
• Insects lay hundreds of egg
• One pair elephant gives rise to about six offspring and if all survived in 750 year a
single pair would produce about 19 million elephant.
• Thus, some organisms produce more offspring and other produce fewer offspring.
This is called Differential Reproduction.
2. Limited carrying capacity of environment: Due to limited space & food.

3. Struggle for existence :

• Every individual competes with other of the same and other species for basic
necessities like.
• Space, shelter and food.
• It is called struggle for existence and it continues for the whole life from zygote stage
to its natural death.
4. Variations and heredity :
• Except identical twins no two individuals are similar and their requirements are also
not same.
• It mean there are differences among the individuals. These differences are called
variations.
• Due to variations some individuals would be better adjusted towards the
surroundings than the others.
• According to Darwin the variations are continuous and those which are helpful in the
adaptation of an organism towards its surroundings would be passed on to the next
generation, while the others will disappear.
5. Survival of the fittest or natural selection :
• The original idea of survival of fittest was proposed by Herbert Spencer.
• According to Darwin most suitable and fit individuals are successful in struggle for
existence.
• The individuals with most favorable adaptations are able to lead most successful life
and are able to win over their mating partners.
• Darwin called it Sexual Selection.
• In the struggle for existence only those members survive which posses useful
variations means nature selects fit individuals.
• This was called Natural Selection.
• Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature.
6. Origin of New Species :
• Darwin explained that variations appearing due to environmental changes are
transmitted to the next generation.
• So offspring become different from ancestors.
• In next generation process of Natural selection repeats so after many generation a
new species is formed.
Criticism of Darwinism
1. Darwin does not explain the development of vestigial organs.
2. No satisfactory explanation for the cause, origin and inheritance of variation.
3. Darwin is unable to explain why in a population only a few individuals develop useful
variation and others have harmful variations.
4. Darwin was unable to differentiate between somatic and germinal variations.
5. This theory was unable to explain over-specialization of some organs like tusk of
elephants, antelers of deer.
6. This theory only explain the survival of fittest but unable to explain arrival of fittest.
7. The main drawback of Darwinism was lack of the knowledge of heredity.
 Mutation Theory
• Proposed by Hugo-de-Vries on the basis of his experiments on a plant Oenothera
lamarckiana (evening primrose).

Main Point of mutation theory :

• Mutation or discontinuous variation are the raw material of evolution.
• Mutation appears suddenly and produced their effect immediately.
• Mutants are different from the parents and there are no intermediate stages between
the two.
• The same type of mutation can appear in several individuals of a species.
• Mutation can appear in all direction and all mutations are inheritable.
• Useful mutations are selected by nature and lethal mutations are eliminated.
• Mutation are recurring so that the same mutant can appear again & again so change
of selection by nature are increased and new species is formed.
• De - Vries termed single step large mutation as Saltation.
• Mutations are large, random and directionless while Darwinism variations are small
and directional.
Oenothera lamarckiana
Points in favor of mutation theory :
• Mutations are actually the source of all variations and fountainhead of evolution.
• Mutation theory can explain both progressive & retrogressive evolution.

Significance :
• De-Vries mutation theory generally accepted because the mutation were found to be
inheritable.
• It was later through that evolution cannot occur by mutation alone, natural selection
and isolation of mutants are also necessary for evolution.

Drawbacks :
• Natural mutation are not very common in Hugo de Vries thought.
• Mutations are normally recessive & harmful, while characters taking part in evolution re
usually dominant.
Neo Darwinism / Modern Synthetic theory of
Organic Evolution

• Neo Darwinism is a modified form of Darwinism along with recent researches of Weismann,
Mendel, De Vries, Huxley, Gates, Stabbins etc.
• They performed many experiments to remove the objections against Darwin's theory.

The salient features of Neo Darwinism are as follows–

• Rapid multiplication : All organism multiply in geometrical ratio.
• Limited food and space : Food and space are limited.
• Struggle for existence : It is of three types - Intra-specific, Inter-specific and Environmental.
The struggle for existence is of three types –
1. Intra-specific struggle : It is competition between the individuals of same species for
same needs like food, shelter and breeding (most acute type of struggle).
2. Inter-specific struggle : It is the struggle between the individuals of different species for
food and shelter.
3. Environmental struggle : This struggle is between the organism and their environment. All
organism struggle with cold, heat, wind, rain drought and flood etc.
Genetic Variations : They are inheritable variation which can occur due to the following
reasons.
a. Gene Recombination- New combination of genes which are usually cause by crossing
over during gametogenesis. It is continuous & common source of variation in as
sexually reproducing population.
b. Mutation- Discontinuous source of variations.
c. Hybridization- It is crossing of organisms which are genetically different in one or
more times.
d. Gene migration & Gene flow- New genes / alleles are added to the new population
and these are lost from the old population.
e. Genetic Drift- If the change in gene frequency occurs by chance, it is called as Genetic
Drift.
GENETIC DRIFT (Sewall Wright Effect)-
1. Random change of gene or allelic frequency in a population merely by chance is called
Genetic drift.
2. It operated rapidly in Small Population.
3. It is due to habitat fragmentation, isolation, natural calamities or any epidemics.
4. Founder Effect & Bottle Neck Effect are two forms of Genetic Drift.
Founder Effect-
• When a selection of population gets isolated or migrated or drifted from original
population, than this section become genetically different from the original population
due to change in allelic frequency because gene pool od this section may contain some
alleles in a very low frequency or may lack a few alleles.
• Sometimes the change in allelic frequency is so different in the new sample of population
that they become a different species.
• The original drifted population become founders and the effect is called Founder effect.
Bottle Neck Effect-
• Bottle necks are calamities like Earthquake, Volcanic Eruptions, Floods, storms etc.
• A sudden change in the environment may drastically reduce the size of a population and
now this population may be genetically different from the original population.
• Certain alleles may have more frequency among the survivors others may less, and some
may be absent altogether.
• If a population that has passed through a bottle neck ultimately recovers in size, it may
have low levels of genetic variation for a long period of time and this may produce a new
species.
WHAT ARE THE EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION?
Paleontological Evidences
Evidences from comparative Morphology & Anatomy
Evidences from Vestigial Organs
Evidences from Atavism (reversion)
Evidences from Connecting Link
Evidences from Embryology
Evidences from geographical distribution
Evidences of Organic Evolution

1. Paleontological Evidences
• The study of fossils is known as Paleontology.
• Birbal Sahni is famous for Indian paleontologists.
• Two branches of Paleontology –
a. Palaeobotany : Study of Plant Fossils.
b. Palaeozoology : Study of Animals Fossils.
• Fossils provide one of the most
acceptable evidence in support
of Organic evolution.
• Mostly Fossils are found in
sedimentary rocks.
Type of Fossils :
1. Unaltered Fossils :
• In this type whole bodies of extinct organisms are found frozen in ice at the polar
regions E.g. Wooly mammoths (25000 yrs. before extinct fossils were found from
Siberian region).
2. Petrified fossils –
• Most common type of fossil.
• Replacement of organic part by mineral deposits is called petrification. These fossils
consists of only the hard parts e.g. bones, teeth, shells, wood etc. of extinct organisms.
In human body first fossilization occurs of teeth.
3. Mould fossils –
• Here no part of the original organism is present, only an impression of the external
structure of body is preserved in wet soil.
4. Cast fossils –
• Sometimes minerals fills in the mould, resulting in cast fossils
5. Print Fossils –
• Foot print or prints of wings, skin, leaves, stems etc. made in soft mud which
subsequently become fossilized are a common type of fossils.
6. Coprolites –
• These fossils include the fossil preservation of contents of the intestine or excreta of
many ancient animals including particularly the reptiles or fishes.
This will be illustrated with the help of four different methods.
1. Lead method
2. Radio-carbon method
3. Potassium – Argon method- Hominid Fossils
4. Electron spin resonance method (ESR method)- Most Accurate
2. Morphological and Anatomical Evidences
• Different animals and plants show dissimilarities in their structure but in some characters
they show similarities.
• These similarities are of two types.
(A) Homology
(B) Analogy
Homology –
• The similarity based on common origin, similar basic plan of organization and embryonic
development is called Homology.
• Similarity in appearance and function is not necessary.
• The organs which have common origin, embryonic development and same basic structure
but perform different functions are called Homologous organ.
• Homologous term given by Richard Owen.
1. Fore limbs of mammals –
Horse Bat Whale Man
Appearance Foot Wings Flipper Hand
Function Running Flying Swimming Holding
In their fore limbs similar bones are present like – humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals and phalanges.

2. Mouth parts of insects -

Cockroach Honey Bee Mosquito
Biting and chewing Chewing and lapping Piercing and sucking
In each of these insects the mouth parts comprise labrum, mandibles and maxillae.
3. Homology is also seen in the skeleton, heart, blood vessels and excretory system of
different vertebrates.
4. Thorn of Bougainvillea and tendril of Cucurbita (Modification of axillary bud).
5. Wings of sparrow and pectoral fins of fish.
6. Hind limb of mammals.
7. Potato & ginger- both are modified shoots.
8. Radish & Carrot- both are modified roots.
9. Homology is also seen amongst the molecule. This is called molecular homology. For
example the proteins found in the blood of man and apes are similar.
10. Testes in male and Ovaries in female develop from same embryonic tissue.
• Homology found in different animals indicate their evolution from Common ancestors.
• Species which have diverged after origin from common ancestor giving rise to new
species adapted to new habitats and ways of life is called adaptive radiation, exhibit
large number of Homologous organs.
• Homology shows Divergent evolution.
• For Example- Adaptive radiation gave rise to a variety of Marsupials in Australia.
• Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation in evolving into varieties
of such placental mammals each of which appears to be ‘similar’ to a corresponding
marsupial (E.g., Placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf marsupial).
Fig. Adaptive radiation of marsupials of Australia
Divergent Evolution (adaptive divergence/adaption radiation)

Fig. Variety of beaks of finches that Darwin found in Galapagos Island

• During his journey Darwin went to Galapagos Islands.
• There he observed an amazing diversity of creatures.
• Of particular interest, small black birds later called Darwin’s Finches amazed him.
• He realized that there were many varieties of finches in the same island.
• All the varieties, he conjectured, evolved on the island itself.
• From the original seed-eating features, many other forms with altered beaks arose,
enabling them to become insectivorous and vegetarian finches.
• This process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from
a point and literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is called Adaptive
radiation.
• A number of marsupials, each
different from the other evolved
from an ancestral stock, but all
within the Australian island
continent.
• When more than one Adaptive
Radiation appeared to have
occurred in an isolated
geographical area (representing
different habitats), one can call this
Convergent Evolution.
Analogy –
• The organs which have different origin & fundamental structures but perform similar
functions are called Analogus Organs & this phenomenon is called as Analogy.
Examples of Analogous organs
1. Wings of bat & birds are analogous to wings of insects.
2. Pelvic fins of fish, flipper of seal.
3. Sting of Bee and Scorpion.
4. Chloragogen cell of Pheretima and liver of vertebrate.
5. Potato (stem modification) and sweet potato (root modification).
6. Eyes of Octopus and eyes of mammals (different in their retinal position).
7. Dog fish and whale.
• Convergent evolution (Adaptive convergence / Parallel evolution) :
• Development of similar adaptive functional structures in unrelated groups of organisms is
called convergent evolution.
• For Example :
• Some of the marsupials of Australia resemble equivalent placental mammals that live
in similar habitats of other continents.
• When adaptive convergence is found in closely related species, it is called Parallel
evolution.
• Analogous organs do not show common ancestry but they show Convergent Evolution.
Fig. Picture showing Convergent evolution of Australian
Marsupials and Placental Mammals
 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
Divergent Evolution Convergent evolution
The origin of homologous The origin of analogous organs
organs due to adaptations to due to adaptations for life in similar
different needs is called habitats is called Convergent
Divergent Evolution. Evolution.

Divergent evolution is the Convergent evolution is the

process by which related species process by which unrelated species
become less similar in order to become more similar in order to
survive in different survive in similar environmental
environmental condition. condition.
3. Evidences from vestigial organs
• The organs which are present in reduced form and do not perform any function in the
body but correspond to the fully develop functional organs of related animals are called
Vestigial organs.
• They are remnants of organs which were complete and functional in their ancestors.
• Vestigial organs in Human body –
E.g.
Nictitating membrane Muscles of pinna (auricular muscles)
Vermiform appendix Coccyx
Canine teeth Third molars (wisdom teeth)
Segmental muscles of abdomen Caecum
Body hairs Nipples in male
4. Evidences from connecting links
• Some animals and plants possess characters of two separate groups. One being
primitive and the other is advanced group.
• These species as bridge between two taxonomic groups such organism are called
Connecting link.
• They provide good example of organic evolution of common ancestry.
• Examples-
 Virus : between living and non living
 Euglena : Between plants and animals
 Proterospongia : Between Protozoa and Porifera
 Neopilina : Between Mollusca and Annelida

Proterospongia
 Peripatus : Between Annelida and Arthropoda
 Archaeopteryx : Between Reptiles and Birds
 Balanoglossus : Between Non-chordates and Chordates
 Chimera : Between cartilaginous Fish and Boney fish
 Lung fish (Protopterus) : Between Fishes and Amphibia Chimera
 Platypus : Between Reptiles and Mammals
 Echidna : Between Reptiles and Mammals.

Lung Fish
Echidna

Platypus
Archaeopteryx
• It is the missing link between reptiles & birds.
• The connecting link which are not found in present
times are called missing link.
Reptilian Characters-
1. Long lizard like tail with free caudal vertebrae.
2. Non pneumatic bones
3. Weak sternum
4. Teeth present in jaw.
Avian characters-
1. Feathers on body
2. Jaws modified into beak
3. Forelimbs modified into wings
4. Hind limbs built in avian plan
5. Evidences from Atavism (Reversion)
• Sometimes in some individuals such characters suddenly appears which were supposed to
be present in their ancestors but were lost during the course of development.
• This phenomenon is known as Atavism or Reversion.
• Atavism proves that animals developing atavistic structure have evolved from such
ancestors in which these structures were fully developed.
Examples :
1. Human baby with tail
2. Cervical fistula – In some human babies an aperture is present on neck behind the ear
called as cervical fistula. It represents pharyngeal gill slits which were present in aquatic
vertebrate ancestors.
3. Long and pointed canine teeth represented carnivorous ancestors.
4. Large and thick body hair reflect our relationship with apes.
5. Extra nipples (more than two)
6. Evidences from Bio Geographical Distribution-
• The study of Geographical distribution of animals and plant species in different parts of
Earth is called Biogeography.
• Darwin's finches –
• Darwin studied Fauna and Flora of Galapagos island situated near South America
(consisted 22 islands). Here he saw 22 types of finches (birds).
• A related species of these birds were also present in South American continent. Probably
some member of this species migrated to Galapagos island where these birds evolved into
different species as a result of adaptation to environment.
• These birds are now known as Darwin's Finches. Darwin described that a particular species
is evolved in a particular area, progenies of this species migrate to different geographical
areas and are gradually adapted to changing environmental conditions.
• These adaptations gradually give rise to new species as a result of isolation
SPECIAL POINT :
• Darwin's finches are also an example of Adaptive radiation (different shape of beak and
claws due to their habitat).
• Darwin's finches are example of Allopatric speciation.
• Allopatric speciation is speciation that happens when two populations of the same species
become isolated from each other due to geographic changes.
7. Evidences from Embryology
• Baer's Law :
• An organism show its ancestor stages in embryonic development.
• In embryonic stage general characters appear first then specialized characters appear.

More General Less General General Specified

Q. What would be the sequence of appearance

of following characters in humans?
a. Hairs
b. Jaw
c. Notochord
d. Vertebral Column
e. Limbs
Ans. c,d,b,e,a
• Muller- First to propose 'Recapitulation theory'.
• According to it ‘Ontogeny recapitulate phylogeny’.
• Ontogeny is the study of embryological development of individual organisms.
• Recapitulate means Repeats.
• Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of that organism.

• Ernest Haeckel explained it in detail and gave the name 'Biogenetic law’- It means any
organism show its ancestral adult stages during its embryonic development. It shows
that all organism evolved from a common ancestor.

Examples : -
• The tadpole larva of amphibians resembles with fishes. This indicates origin of
amphibians from fishes.
GUESS THE EMBRYO?
Resemblance in Vertebrate Embryos
8) Evidence from physiology and biochemistry
Different organism show similarities in physiology and biochemistry. Some
clear examples are –
(i) Protoplasm : Structure and chemical composition of protoplasm is same
from protozoa to mammalia.
(ii) Enzymes : Enzymes perform same function in all animals like Trypsin digest
protein from amoeba to man. Amylase digest starch from porifera to
mammalia.
(iii) Blood : Chordates show almost same composition of blood.
(iv) ATP : This energy rich molecule is formed for biological oxidation in all
animals.
(v) Hormones : Secreted in different vertebrates performs same function.
(vi) Hereditary material : Hereditary material is DNA is all organism and its
basic structure is same in all animals.
(vii) Cytochrome C is a respiration protein situated in the mitochondria of all
organism. In this protein from 78-88 A.A. are identical in all organism,
which show common ancestory.
Physiology and biochemistry thus prove that all animals have evolved
from some common ancestor.
IMPORTANT POINT :

• Paleontological and Biogeographical evidences are considered as best

evidences in support of organic evolution.
 Evolution of Horse

Evolution of Horse-
• Increment in body height, length of
neck & legs.
• Reduction in number of toes or fingers
& development of running habit.
• Development of high crown teeth &
formation of cement.
• Enlargement in size of brain.
Evolution of Horse
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
Paleontological ● The study of fossils.
evidences ● Fossils: are remains of hard parts of life forms found in rocks (earth crust).
Fossils indicate the connecting link between two groups of organisms.
● They give an idea about the form and structure of extinct animals.
● Study of fossils in sedimentary layers indicates the geological period

Morphological and ● Homologous organs: The organs which are fundamentally similar in structure
Anatomical and origin but adapted for different functions . This phenomenon is called
evidences Homology.
● E.g. Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wing, Cheetah’s foot and Human hand.
● Analogous organs and Analogy: Analogous organs: The organs having similar
function but different structure and origin. This phenomenon is called Analogy.
● E.g. Wings of insects and wings of birds, Eyes of Octopus and mammals,
Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
Biochemical ● Similarities in proteins and genes.
evidences ● Similarities in other biomolecules and metabolism.

Evidences for ● Natural selection is the process by which the organisms that are best
evolution by natural suited for their environment survive and reproduce.
selection

Biogeographical ● Adaptive radiation: A process of evolution of closely related species in a

evidences given geographical area starting from a point.
● Darwin’s finches (seen in Galapagos islands)
● Australian marsupials
● Placental mammals in Australia
Morphological and Anatomical Evidences
External and Internal structure

Homologous structure Autologous structure

Homologous organs - similar organs Homoplastic organs - Dissimilar organs

Divergent / true evolution convergent evolution / no true evolution

Forelimb- whales,bats,human,cheetah Wings of butterfly & birds

Biochemical & molecular homology Eye of octopus and of mammals

Thorns and tendrils Flippers of penguin & dolphin

Homology in insects legs, Mouth parts in
Sweet potato & potato
insects
Examples of Homologous organs –

Fig. Example of homologous organ in (a) Plants and (b) Animals

(x) Homology is also seen amongst the molecule. This is called molecular
homology. For example the proteins found in the blood of man and apes
are similar.
(xi) Testes in male and Ovaries in female develop from same embryonic tissue

Divergent evolution (adaptive divergence/adaption radiation)

Fig. Variety of beaks of finches that Darwin found in Galapagos Island

Analogy –
It is similarity in organs based on similar function.

Insect

Bat
Birds
Fig.: Analogous organs
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
Divergent Evolution Convergent evolution

The origin of homologous The origin of analogous organs

organs due to adaptations due to adaptations for life in
to different needs is called similar habitats is called
Divergent evolution. Convergent evolution.

Divergent evolution is the Convergent evolution is the

process by which related process by which unrelated
species become less similar species become more similar in
in order to survive in order to survive in similar
different environmental environmental condition.
condition
Placental Mammal as example of convergent evolution

Placental Mammals Australian Marsupials

Anteater Numbat (Anteater)

Lemur Spotted Cuscus

Flying Squirrel Phalanger

Mole Marsupial mole

Mouse Marsupial Rat

Wolf Tasmanian wolf

Bobcat Tasmanian cat

Fig. Adaptive radiation of marsupials of Australia
2. Australian Marsupials

Sugar glides Tasmanian wolf

Tiger cat

Marsupial
mole Banded anteater
Common
Ancestor
Koala
Marsupial rat

Wombat
Kangaroo Tiger cat
Connecting link
Euglena - animals & plants
Proterospongia - protozoa & sponges
neopilina - annelida & mollusca
Peripatus - annelida & arthropoda
Balanoglossus - chordate & non-
chordate Lung fishes - fishes &
amphibians Latineria /coelocanth -
fishes & amphibian Chimaera -
cartilgenous & bony fish
Ornythorhyncus - reptiles & mammals
Vestigial Organs
Remnants of organs which were completely
Examples functional in their ancestors.

★ Reptilian jaw apparatus ★ Wisdom tooth

★ Hindlimbs of python ★ Body hair

★ Hindlimbs of Greenland whales ★ Segmental muscles on abolamen

★ Auriculas muscles of pinna ★ Appendix

★ Nictitating membrane ★ Caudal vertebrae

ATAVISM
It is the reappearance of certain ancestral
Examples characters

★ Moving pinna

★ Developed canine teeth.

★ Long dense hair

★ Shout tail in some babies

★ Additional mammae

★ Citrus leaf
Neo Darwinism / Modern Synthetic theory of
Organic Evolution

The salient features of Neo Darwinism are as follows–

• Rapid multiplication
• Limited food and space
• Struggle for existence
• Genetic Variations
• Natural Selection
• Isolation
Natural Selection :
• If differential reproduction (some individuals produce more, some only few and still
others none) continue for many generations, genes of the individuals which produce more
offspring will become predominant in the gene pool of the population. Thus natural
selection occurs through differential reproduction in successive generations.
Reproductive Isolation :
• Isolation is a segregation of populations by some barriers which prevent interbreeding.
The reproductive isolation between the populations due to certain barriers leads to the
formation of new species.
Natural selection is based on the following facts-
1. Heritable minor variations
2. Overproduction by organisms
3. Limited natural resources
4. Struggle for existence
5. Survival of the fittest
Types of Natural Selection
• Based upon different organism –
Environment relationship.
• Following different kinds of natural
selection have been recognized.
1. Stabilizing Selection.
2. Directional Selection.
3. Disruptive Selection.
Stabilizing selection :
• It keeps a population genetically constant.
• It favors the average or normal phenotypes and eliminate the extreme variants, that fall
towards both ends of the bell-shaped curve of variability for the distribution of
measurements of phenotypic traits.
• Due to continuous elimination of both extremes, the bell shaped curve tends to narrow.
Stabilizing selection always operates in constant or unchanging environment.
• Example-
• Mortality in babies : The birth weight of human babies provides another example
influenced by stabilizing selection. The optimum birth weight favored by stabilizing
selection is 7.3 pounds.
• New born infants less than 5.5 pounds and more than 10 pounds have the highest
mortality rate.
• The curve for mortality is virtually the complement of the curve of survival.
Optimum birth weight
7.3

The distribution of birth weight of human infants. A-Histogram showing the proportions of
populations falling ionto various birth weight classes. B-Mortality curve in relation to birth weight
of human infants
Directional selection or Progressive selection :
• This form of selection operates in response to gradual changes in environmental
condition. It favor the phenotype which is non average or extreme and then pushes
the phenotype of the population in that direction.
• Directional selection removes more individuals from one end of the normal curve of
variability distribution and adds towards the other end and alters the mean value of
the trait in the population in a particular direction. So the mean moves in one
direction. Directional selection operates when environment is changing in one
direction.
• Example –
1. Biston betularia
2. Resistance of insects to DDT.
• During post industrialization period, the tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke
and soots.
• Under this condition the white-winged moth did not survive due to predators, dark-winged
or melanised moth survived.
• Before industrialization set in, thick growth of almost white-colored lichen covered the trees
- in that background the white winged moth survived but the dark-colored moth were picked
out by predators.
• Do you know that lichens can be used as industrial pollution indicators?
• They will not grow in areas that are polluted. Hence, moths that were able to camouflage
themselves, i.e., hide in the background, survived.
• This understanding is supported by the fact that in areas where industrialization did not
occur E.g., in rural areas, the count of melanic moths was low.
• This showed that in a mixed population, those that can better-adapt, survive and increase
in population size.
• Remember that no variant is completely wiped out.
Disruptive selection :
• This is probably the rarest form of selection but can be very important in bringing about
evolutionary change.
• Presence of more than one phenotype in a population.
• Selection pressure acting from within the population as a result increased competition
may push the phenotype away from the population mean towards the extremes of the
population.
• This can split a population into two subpopulation. If the gene flow between the
subpopulation is prevented, each population may give rise to a new species.
• In some cases this form of selection can give rise to the appearance of different
phenotype within a population, known as Polymorphism.
Example –
• Shell pattern in limpets :
• Shell patterns of limpets (marine Mollusca) present a continuous, ranging from pure
white to dark tan. These are either attached to white goose neck barnacles or to tan -
colored rocks. The white or light-colored limpets camouflaged withy white barnacles and
tanned ones were protected on the tan - colored rocks. Limpets of intermediate shell
patterns, being conspicuous are preyed by predatory shore birds, resulting in disruptive
selection.
HARDY WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

• In a given population one can find out the frequency of occurrence of alleles of a gene
or a locus.
• This frequency is supposed to remain fixed and even remain the same through
generations.
• Hardy-Weinberg principle stated it using algebraic equations.
• This principle says that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant
from generation to generation.
• The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is
called Genetic Equilibrium.
• Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.
 p+q=1
Where,
p = Frequency of dominant allele A
q = Frequency of dominant allele a

• The Binomial expansion of this Equation is-

p2 + 2pq + q 2 =1
p2 = Frequency of individual with genotype AA
q2 = Frequency of individual with genotype aa
2pq = Frequency of individual with genotype Aa
• Five factors are known to affect Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium. These are-
1. Gene migration or Gene flow
2. Genetic drift
3. Mutation
4. Genetic recombination
5. Natural selection
 SPECIATION
• Formation of one or more new species from an existing species is called Speciation.
• Speciation are of 2 types.
A. Divergent Speciation :
Origin of one or more new species from an ancestor species is called divergent speciation.
In this type of speciation ancestor sp. also continuous to exist with new species. In this type
of speciation no. of species are increased.

Divergent speciation are of two types –

(1) Allopatric Speciation :
When a species split into two or more geographically isolated population and these
population finally form a new species. This mode of speciation is called allopatric speciation
and these sp. are known as Allopatric Species.
E.g. Finches of Darwin are example of Allopatric speciation.
(2) Sympatric species :
In this type of speciation a sub population becomes reproductively isolated from its
parental population. Sympatric speciation is the formation of species without
geographical isolation and these sp. are known as sympatric species.

B. Transformation Speciation :
Also called Phyletic Speciation. In this type of speciation an ancestor species change
into a new sp. with time. In this process no. of species is not increased.
E.g. Eohippus –> Mesohippus –> Merychippus –> Pliohippus –> Equus
 EVOLUTION OF LIFE FORMS – A THEORY

• Conventional religious literature tells us about the Theory of Special creation.

• This theory has three connotations.
1. One, that all living organisms (species or types) that we see today were created as
such.
2. Two, that the diversity was always the same since creation and will be the same in
future also.
3. Three, that earth is about 4000 years old. All these ideas were strongly challenged
during the nineteenth century.
• Based on observations made during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle round
the world, Charles Darwin concluded that existing living forms share similarities to
varying degrees not only among themselves but also with life forms that existed millions
of years ago.
• Many such life forms do not exist any more.
• There had been extinctions of different life forms in the years gone by just as new forms
of life arose at different periods of history of earth.
• There has been gradual evolution of life forms. Any population has built in variation in
characteristics.
• Those characteristics which enable some to survive better in natural conditions (climate,
food, physical factors, etc.) would outbreed others that are less-endowed to survive
under such natural conditions.
• Another word used is fitness of the individual or population. The fitness, according to
Darwin, refers ultimately and only to reproductive fitness.
• Hence, those who are better fit in an environment, leave more progeny than others.
These, therefore, will survive more and hence are selected by nature. He called it Natural
selection and implied it as a mechanism of evolution.
• Let us also remember that Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago
had also come to similar conclusions around the same time.
• In due course of time, apparently new types of organisms are recognizable.
• All the existing life forms share similarities and share common ancestors.
• However, these ancestors were present at different periods in the history of earth (epochs,
periods and eras).
• The geological history of earth closely correlates with the biological history of earth.
• A common permissible conclusion is that earth is very old, not thousand of years as was
thought earlier but billions of years old.
A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
• About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first cellular forms of life appeared on Earth.
• The mechanism of how non-cellular aggregates of giant macromolecules could evolve into
cells with membranous envelop is not known.
• Some of these cells had the ability to release O2 .
• The reaction could have been similar to the light reaction in photosynthesis where water is
split with the help of solar energy captured and channelized by appropriate light harvesting
pigments.
• Slowly single-celled organisms became multi-cellular life forms.
• By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were formed and active.
• Jawless fish probably evolved around 350 mya.
• Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya.
• We are told that the first organisms that invaded land were plants.
• They were widespread on land when animals invaded land.
• Fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water. This was about
350 mya.
• In 1938, a fish caught in South Africa happened to be a Coelacanth which was thought to
be extinct.
• These animals called lobefins evolved into the first amphibians that lived on both land and
water.
• There are no specimens of these left with us. However, these were ancestors of modern
day frogs and salamanders.
• The amphibians evolved into reptiles.
• They lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun unlike those of amphibians.
• Again we only see their modern day descendants, the turtles, tortoises and crocodiles.
• In the next 200 millions years or so, reptiles of different shapes and sizes dominated on
Earth.
• Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
• Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles
probably 200 mya (E.g. Ichthyosaurs).
• The land reptiles were, of course, the dinosaurs.
• The biggest of them, i.e., Tyrannosaurus rex was about 20 feet in height and had huge
fearsome dagger like teeth.
• About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth. We do not know
the true reason.
• Some say climatic changes killed them. Some say most of them evolved into birds. The
truth may live in between.
• Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today.
• The first mammals were like shrews. Their fossils are small sized.
• Mammals were viviparous and protected their unborn young inside the mother’s body.
• Mammals were more intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger at least.
• When reptiles came down mammals took over this earth. There were in South America
mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit, etc.
• Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were
overridden by North American fauna.
• Due to the same continental drift pouched mammals of Australia survived because of lack
of competition from any other mammal.
• Lest we forget, some mammals live wholly in water.
• Whales, dolphins, seals and sea cows are some examples.
• Evolution of horse, elephant, dog, etc., are special stories of evolution.
• You will learn about these in higher classes.
• The most successful story is the evolution of man with language skills and self-consciousness.
Geological time scale with events
 HOMINID EVOLUTION

Homo Habilis
Ramapithecus Modern man
Neanderthal man

Dryopithecus Australopithecus Homo Erectus Cro Magnon man

 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN
Origin & Evolution of Man
• About 15 mya, primates called
Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were
existing. They were hairy and walked like
gorillas and chimpanzees.
• Ramapithecus was more man-like while
Dryopithecus was more ape-like.
• Few fossils of man-like bones have been
discovered in Ethiopia and Tanzania.

Figure. A comparison of the skulls of adult modern human being, baby

chimpanzee and adult chimpanzee. The skull of baby chimpanzee
is more like adult human skull than adult chimpanzee skull.
 These revealed hominid features leading to the belief that about 3-4 mya,
man-like primates walked in eastern Africa. They were probably not taller
than 4 feet but walked up right. Two mya, Australopithecines probably lived
in East African grasslands.
 Evidence shows they hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit.
Some of the bones among the bones discovered were different. This
creature was called the first human-like being the hominid and was called
Homo habilis. The brain capacities were between 650-800cc. They
probably did not eat meat. Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed the
next stage, i.e., Homo erectus about 1.5 mya. Homo erectus had a large
brain around 900cc. Homo erectus probably ate meat.
 The Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc lived in near east and
central Asia between 1,00,000-40,000 years back. They used hides to
protect their body and buried their dead. Homo sapiens arose in Africa and
moved across continents and developed into distinct races.
 During ice age between 75,000-10,000 years ago modern Homo sapiens
arose. Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago. Agriculture
came around 10,000 years back and human settlements started. The rest
of what happened is part of human history of growth and decline of
civilisations.
• The primates include Prosimians
(Lemurs, tarsiers and related
forms) and Anthropoids (Monkeys,
apes and Human).
• They are descended from small
rodent like or insectivorous
mammals that evolved about 80
million years ago.
Elephant Shrews : - Tree shrews : -
Originated in late Mesozoic era in Cretaceous Period. They were first real primates originated in
They were not real primates Palaeocene epoch.
Order primata is divided into 2 sub orders.
(A) Prosimians : - Lemur - Evolved in Medagaskar 3
Loris - Evolved in China 2 Closest relation to human
Tarsiers - Evolved in Indonesia 1
They are prosimian ancestors of human,
(B) Anthropoids : - Monkeys
Apes
Human
Monkeys : 2 types
(1) Old world monkeys : - Rhesus (Macaca), Baboon (Old world = Africa. Asia)
(i) Tail, non prehensile tail.
(ii) Narrow flat nose with downward direction of nostril.
(iii) U-shaped Jaw.
2123
(iv) Dental formula same as human  32
2123
(v) Menstruation cycle is present in female.
(2) New world monkeys : - spider monkey, marmosets (New world = South & Middle America)
(i) Long, prehensile tail
(ii) Protruding nose with upward direction of nostril
(iii) U-shaped jaw
2133
(iv) Dental formula  36
2133
(v) Menstruation cycle absent but estrous cycle is present.
So, Old world monkeys are more closer to human.
Apes : 4 types
1. Chimpanzee 400 c.c.
2. Gorilla 500 c.c. Family - Pongideae
3. Oranguttan 400 c.c.
4. Gibbon 100 c.c. Family - Hyalobatideae

Proconsul : Its fossils were discovered by Leakey from East Africa near Victoria
lake in Kenya from Miocene rocks. It walked on its four legs (considered as
common ancestor of man and apes).
(4) Dryopithecus : - Evolution  15-20 million years ago.
– Direct ancestor of modern day apes.
– They were forest dwellers spending most of the time one the trees.
– Origin & evolution in Miocene epoch.
– Semi erect posture
– Quadra pedal locomotion, forlimbs longer than hind limbs.
– Thick growth of hair
– U shaped jaws
– Teeth larger and sharper
– By nature vegetarian, fruit eater
(5) Ramapithecus
Fossils discovered by Lewis from Shivalik hills in India
(6) Shivapithecus
(7) Kenyapithecus Fossils discovered from Kenya by Leakey.
 – Origin and evolution in Pliocene epoch.
– They are considered as ancestors of human but in characteristics same
as Dryopithecus, but spending most of the time on the land.

(8) Australopithecus :- Prof. Raymond dart discovered a fossil of skull of 5-6

year old baby from the old Pliocene rocks of Tuang region (S. Africa). He
named it Tuang baby, later on he renamed it A. Africanus.
– About 3-2 million years ago it lived in East African grasslands.
– Evidences shows they hunted with stone. Probably ate fruits.
– It was an apeman because it have many characters of man and apes so
it is also considered as connecting link between apes and man.
 Apes like characters :
– Less cranial capacity – 400 – 500 c.c.
– Thick growth of hair on body
– Prognathous.
 Man like characters :
– Complete erect posture (first man who stood erect)
– Forelimb shorter than hind limbs.
– Bipedal locomotion (first man)
– Some other varieties of Australopithecus were also discovered by some
other scientist.
– A. boisei [zinjanthropus] by Leakey from East Africa [Tanzania]
– A. afaransis [Lucy] by Donald Johanson from Ethiopea.
Prehistorical Man
A number of other species of Homo appeared and became extinct from time on the
evolutionary sense before the origin of Homo sapiens. These extinct species are called
prehistoric species of man.
(1) Homo habilis : -
The Tool maker or Handy man.
– First human being like
– Its fossils were discovered by Dr. Leakey from 2 million years old rocks in Africa
– Cranial capacity - 650 – 800 c.c.
– Complete erect posture
– Prognathous
– First man who made tools of stones for hunting animals.
– By nature vegetarian
(2) Homo erectus : - direct ancestor of homo sapiens
–Origin and evolution, 1.5 million years ago.
–Java man
–Peking man
–Heidelberg man (Branch from main line of Human evolution)
Java man :
Homo erectus erectus name given by Mayer.
or Pithecanthropus erectus given by Dubois.
–Fossil obtain from central java by Eugene Dubois.
– Lived in caves
–They used Tools of bones and stones
– Cranial capacity – 900 c.c.
–First man who used fire for hunting, protection and cooking
– Chin absent, Jaw Prognathous
– Complete erect posture
– Omnivorous, cannibalism have also found.
It is also known as erect ape man
Peking man : Homo erectus pekinensis name given by Mayer
Sinanthropus erectus name was given by Davidson Black
– W.C. Pai discovered the fossil of peking man from China.
– Lived in caves
– Cranial capacity – 1100 c.c.
– Chin absent, Jaw Prognathous
– Used sharp chisel shaped tools of stones, bones for cutting and killing animals.
– Omnivorous, cannibalism has been also found
– Used fire for cooking meat and for protection
Heidelberg man : -
– A fossil of lower jaw obtain from Heidelberg in Germany it was discovered by
Ottoschotensack.
– Cranial capacity – 1300 c.c.
– Origin & evolution – in Pleistocene epoch. It is believed that this species was evolved
as a branch from main line of evolution and got extinct after some time
(3) Homo sapiens : -
– Neanderthal man
– Cro-Magnon man - Direct ancestor of modern man
– Homo sapiens sapiens - Modern man (Man of today)
(i) Neanderthal man : - Homo sapiens neanderthalensis
– Origin & evolution before a 30,000 – 1 lakh years
– Fossils were discovered by C. fulhrott from Neanderthal vally of Germany.
– They live in huts.
– Cranial capacity 1400 c.c
– Complete erect posture
– Prognathous
– Ceremonial burial of dead body
– Used animals skin as cloths
– Beginning of development of speech center.
– By nature – omnivorous.
– First man believed in ''immortality of soul''
(ii) Cromagnon man : - Homo sapiens fossils
– Origin and evolution 34000 years ago.
– Fossils discovered from Cromagnon rocks of France
– Lived in caves
– Cranial capacity - 1650 c.c. (maximum)
– Complete erect posture
– Well developed speech centre
– Orthognathous jaw.
– Used animal skin as cloth.
– This man was hunter and used domesticated dogs in hunting, so domestication of
animals started by Cro-Magnon man.
– Known for cave paintings.
– Regarded as the direct ancestor of modern man.
– By nature carnivorous.
(iii) Homo sapiens sapiens (Modern man) : - Man of today
–10,000 years ago.
–Cranial capacity 1450 cc
–Complete erect body posture
–Orthognathous
–Well developed speech center, developed languages.
–Less hairs on body as compared to fossil man
–Omnivorous.
–It is believed that modern man evolved in Africa.
–Agriculture was also started by them.
 Neanderthal man

Peking man
Cromagnon man
SPECIAL POINT :
The course of cultural evolution is divided in to three age.
Palaeolithic – Age of tools of stones and bones.
Mesolithic – Age of animals husbandry, language, reading, writing.
Neolithic
(i) Bronze age – Age of agriculture, knowledge and use of clothes.
(ii) Iron age – Present age is also known as Iran age.
• Tree shrews were first real primates.
• Old world monkeys are more closer to human as compared to new world monkeys.
• Chimpanzee is closest ape to human.
• Australopithecus firstly show bipedal locomotion.
• Homohabilis is also known as handy man or the tool maker man.
• Java man firstly used fire.
• W.C. Pai discovered the fossils of Peking man from China.
• Neanderthal man was first man who believed in 'immortality of soul.'
• Cromagnon man was a painter and regarded s the direct ancestor of modern man.
• Homosapiens sapiens is the man of today.
• Carolus Linnaeus called human as Homo sapiens Wiseman.

• Huxley explained origin of man in his book. The man's place in nature'.
• Darwin explained ancestor of man in his book 'The descent of man'.
• Human is a member of order primata of class mammalia.
• Primates originated 80-100 million years ago in palaeocene epoch of coenozoic era.
• Primates originated from elephant shrews but they were not real primates.