CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews studies conducted by other researchers that were considered

significant to the study. The review of related literature allowed comparison of the findings of

this study and other similar studies to provide a basis for confirming or refuting earlier findings

and conclusions and also for situating the current study. Literature was reviewed on the

following themes:

1. Theoretical Framework

2. Empirical Evidence

Theoretical Framework

Developmental Stage Theory

The most influential theory to impact the teaching of spelling is that of developmental

stage theory. According to Gentry (2017, 2018), there are five stages of spelling development:

1) Pre-communicative/pre-phonetic stage: words are represented using strings of letters and

symbols that do not relate to the sounds in words.

2) Semi-phonetic stage: students begin to represent some of the sounds in words, more often

consonants or whole syllables, with plausible letters or letter combinations.

This is usually the start of invented spelling.

3) Phonetic stage: every sound in words is represented by letters. Students show awareness of some

letter-sound correspondences. Some students may stagnate at this stage if they do not learn to use

other strategies beyond phonological knowledge.

knowledge, as well as spelling rules. More words are spelled conventionally.

5) Conventional spelling: most words are spelled conventionally. Students control the

phonological, orthographical, and morphemic knowledge needed and use a range of strategies.

This theory helps teachers to understand the typical pathway students will take as they

learn to spell. It acknowledges that children’s spelling errors are not random but can reveal

something about their thinking about spelling. It also encourages teachers to focus on individual

student needs and development rather than a one-size-fits-all program.

The developmental stage theory (Charles Read, 2019) on spelling proposes that children progress

through a series of stages as they learn to spell. These stages represent a gradual development of

understanding and skill, from initial attempts at representing words to mastery of the English

orthographic system.

Overlapping Waves Theory

Developmental stage theory suggests that students learn to spell in a neat, linear

sequence. However, this is not the case. Overlapping waves theory (OWT) (Siegler, 2020),

suggests that when learning to spell, students will typically be thinking in different ways and

using multiple strategies to solve a problem at the same time. These different ways of thinking

can coexist together and the frequency with which the students use different strategies will rise

and fall over time. Students will gradually discard those strategies that are no longer useful to

them as they learn more efficient and sophisticated strategies to meet their spelling needs

(Oakley & Fellowes, 2019, p. 23).

The History of English Spelling

Fromkin, V., Hyams, N., & Rodman, R. (2019), express that most word spellings don’t

correspond exactly to the way they are pronounced, which can be frustrating and make some

people cry out for a spelling “update”, but doing that would not benefit anyone. We’ll explore

this topic in two parts: Part I is about the history of English spelling and spelling reforms, and

Part II is about the reasons to keep our writing system just as it is.

At this time, Curzan, A., & Adams, M. (2020), words like knight were pronounced the

way they are spelled, with the K sound at the beginning and the throaty sound you hear in

Hebrew for the GH. The ‘i’ sound was more like the sound in “bit.” Therefore, back then, knight

the Warrior and Night the Opposite of the Day were not like they are today, but they still

rhymed. Later on, over a few hundred years and ending during the seventeenth century, people

started pronouncing almost all the English vowels differently. This change is noticeable to

scholars, partly because it occurred just after spellings had started to become standardized, so

there is a name for it: The Great Vowel Shift. By the end of the shift, words like mouse and

house that had been pronounced like “moose” and “hoos,” started sounding as we say them

today: mouse and house. However, since spelling had become more standardized, the spellings

stuck even after the pronunciations changed.

The main reason that spelling doesn’t match pronunciation very well is that most of our spellings

come from a time from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries, and back then, many people

couldn’t read or write well, or at all, so attempts to standardize the way people spelled took time

and were difficult to enforce. Even Shakespeare spelled his name in different ways, on occasion.
 Fromkin, V., Hyams, N., & Rodman, R. (2019). One of the key elements that allowed

spelling to eventually become fixed was the printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg in

the mid-fifteenth century. Around that time and later, a spelling reform of sorts took place

because printed works and their various haphazard spellings were becoming much more widely

distributed. Nevertheless, those efforts brought new spelling problems because they were based

on the whims of a small number of men in positions of authority who revered Greek and Latin.

Renaissance scholars took it upon themselves to change spellings not to be more like

pronunciations, but instead to be more like the classical languages, creating the silent letters in

words like debt, and even adding silent letters that we eventually started to pronounce! For

example, the Middle English word for falcon was “F-A-U-C-O-N,” but scholars stuck an L in

there to look more like the Latin word, and speakers now pronounce the L2. That is also why the

receipt has a P, and indict has a C (it used to be “I-N-D-I-T-E”!).

Definition of Spelling

Spelling is the writing of one or more words with letters and diacritics. In addition, the

term often, but not always, means an accepted standard spelling or the process of naming the

letters. In the sense of a standard, spelling is one of the elements of orthography and a

prescriptive element of alphabetic languages. Spellings attempt to transcribe the sounds of the

language into alphabetic letters, but phonetic spellings are exceptions in many languages for

various reasons. Pronunciation changes over time in all languages, and spelling reforms are

irregular in most languages and rare in some. In addition, words from other languages may be

adopted without being adapted to the spelling system, non-standard spellings are often adopted
 after extensive common usage, and different meanings of a word or homophones may be

deliberately spelled in different ways to differentiate them visually ( Curzan, 2019).

Spelling is a complex skill and an important part of writing. Good spelling is also a social

expectation and contributes to clear communication of a written message. Spelling is a complex

skill and an important part of writing. Good spelling is also a social expectation and contributes

to clear communication of a written message. Spelling requires students to draw on a range of

knowledge about the English language. This knowledge includes:

a) Phonological knowledge - knowledge of the sound structure of language.

b) Orthographical knowledge - knowledge of the system of written symbols used to represent

spoken language.

c) Morphemic knowledge - knowledge of the smallest parts of words that carry meaning.

d) Etymological knowledge - knowledge of the origins of words (Oakley &

Fellowes, 2019, p.6)

Phonological knowledge encompasses the understanding of the sound structure of

language, which is a crucial aspect of literacy development (Kilpatrick, 2020). As students learn

to spell and read, they must develop phonological awareness, which involves the ability to

perceive, identify, and manipulate syllables, rhymes, and individual sounds (phonemes) within

spoken words (Moats, 2020). To spell words, students use this phonological knowledge to

segment each word into smaller units, such as syllables, phonemes, or onset and rime, and

accurately match these to appropriate letters or letter combinations (graphemes). Another

important part of phonological knowledge development is the ability to understand that

sentences comprise words and to hear and identify the separate words in sentences. (Westwood,

2020)
 Orthographic knowledge refers to the understanding of the relationship between sounds

and their written representations, including letters and letter combinations (Bowers & Bowers,

2020). To develop fluent spelling skills, students must also grasp the orthographic rules that

govern the arrangement of letters in written English (Moats, 2020). A fundamental concept in

this regard is the alphabetic principle, which posits that spoken language can be represented in

written form using alphabet letters (graphemes) to symbolize individual sounds (Kilpatrick,

2020). The 26 letters of the English language are used to represent the phonemes of words. A

grapheme can comprise one or more letters. The main ones include:

a) Single letter graphemes, b as in banana, c as in cat or city

b) Double letter graphemes, ee as in feet, oo as in book

c) Double consonant graphemes, bb as in bubble, ss as in miss

d) Digraphs – two different letters representing a phoneme, sh as in sheep, or as in bird

e) Consonant clusters, gl as in glow, scr as in Scratch

f) Trigraphs – three different letters representing a phoneme, high as in night, due as in judge

g) English orthography follows a highly regular system of patterns. Even though some sounds can

be represented by a variety of different letters or letter combinations, these are regular and fixed.

(Westwood, 2019)

Morphemes are the smallest parts of words that carry meaning. Morphemic knowledge

involves understanding how morphemes can be used to form words. The spelling of longer

words requires students to identify and put together the necessary morphemes. There are two

types of morphemes – free morphemes and bound morphemes. Free morphemes are those that

can stand alone as separate words (play as in playing, friend as in unfriendly). Bound

morphemes are not words themselves and cannot occur independently. When added to words,
bound morphemes can change the meaning of words or create new words. Bound morphemes

include prefixes (e.g. re-, dis- trans-) which are added to the beginning of words, and suffixes

(e.g. -able, -les, -ly) which are added to the end of words. Some suffixes can change the number

(singular/plural as in dish/ dishes) or tense (present/past as in play/plays/played) of a word.

Morphological knowledge plays a strong role in determining the spelling of many words in

English. (Westwood, 2020)

Etymological knowledge refers to how the history and origins of words relate to their

meaning and spelling. Many words in modern English come from or have their roots in other

languages, particularly Latin and Greek. For example, the Greek word, graph (write) is the root

or stem of the family of words such as graphics, autograph, and photography. Knowing about the

origin of these words is helpful to students when learning to spell them. (Westwood, 2020)

Factors Contributing to Spelling Challenges

Phonological awareness is the ability to recognize and manipulate the individual sounds

within words. Students who struggle with phonological awareness may have difficulty spelling

words correctly because they do not understand the relationship between letters and sounds

(Adams, 2020).

Letter recognition is a fundamental skill that plays a critical role in spelling development.

Students who struggle to recognize and remember the shapes and sounds of individual letters

may have trouble with spelling (Kilpatrick, 2020). This is because they may confuse similar-

looking letters, such as "b" and "d," or have difficulty associating letters with their corresponding

sounds, a concept known as phonemic awareness (Moats, 2020).

Word patterns. English has many irregularities and exceptions when it comes to spelling,

which can make it difficult for students to recognize and remember common word patterns. This
can lead to spelling difficulties, as students may not be able to predict how a word is spelled

based on its sound (Chard, 2019).

Vocabulary knowledge plays a significant role in spelling development. Students with

limited vocabulary may struggle to spell words correctly because they lack familiarity with the

words and their corresponding spellings (Graves, August, & Mancilla-Martinez, 2020). When

students encounter unfamiliar words, they may not have the necessary knowledge to draw upon,

making it challenging to spell them correctly (Kilpatrick, 2020).

Motor skills. Writing letters and words requires fine motor skills, which some students

may not have fully developed. This can make it difficult for them to spell words correctly,

especially if they have difficulty controlling the movement of their hands and fingers (Henderson

& Mandler, 2021).

Language development. Students who are still learning their first language may struggle

with spelling in their second language due to language development delays or differences in

language structure. This can make it more challenging for them to learn and remember spelling

rules and patterns (Cummins, 2020).

Certain learning disabilities, such as dyslexia can make it more challenging for students

to learn and remember spelling rules and patterns. This is because individuals with dyslexia may

have difficulty processing and retaining linguistic information (Henderson & Mandler, 2019).
 Insufficient practice is a significant contributor to spelling difficulties. The more students

engage in deliberate spelling practice, the more likely they are to develop and reinforce their

spelling skills (Kilpatrick, 2020). Conversely, students who do not receive regular and systematic

spelling practice may struggle to solidify their learning, leading to persistent spelling difficulties

(Moats, 2020).

Instructional Strategies and Key Focus Areas for Spelling

Spelling has traditionally been considered to be a component of English. Among most

educators, spelling retains its traditional definition: "the knowledge and application of the

conventional written representation of words in the process of writing, and the instruction

necessary to develop this knowledge. (Templeton, 2019).

According to Gentry, J.R. (2021). One of the key goals of teaching spelling is to support

students to develop the knowledge required (see above) as well as flexible and efficient

strategies that they can draw upon when learning to spell unfamiliar words. While most students

will develop some strategies for themselves, these are often not sufficient to meet all their

spelling needs. The teacher’s role, therefore, is to extend the repertoire of strategies students

have at their disposal. Some of these other strategies might include:

“Look, say, cover, write, check’, spelling by analogy (for example, knowing how to spell ball

facilitates the spelling of fall, call, tall) or using mnemonics (memory aids, for example, the

principal is my pal) and other resources such as dictionaries and spell checkers.

Spelling is a skill that requires explicit instruction, much like reading and writing (Moats,

2020). Teachers can assess students' writing and reading abilities to create a profile of their

spelling knowledge and strategies (Kilpatrick, 2020). In various writing contexts, such as

modeled, shared, interactive, and guided writing, teachers can demonstrate effective spelling
strategies, including how to sound out words, utilize resources like dictionaries and spell-checks,

and proofread for spelling errors (Bowers & Bowers, 2020).

Students can observe and listen to the teacher, as a model of a proficient writer, as she

uses the knowledge and strategies necessary to problem-solve the spelling of familiar and

unfamiliar words. Learning to spell takes time. With many repeated opportunities to write for

different purposes and audiences, students will learn more about how words work, and what

other authors do, and reflect on how the knowledge and strategies they are learning will support

their writing. If spelling knowledge and strategies are taught in isolation, they will not be as

useful to students. Students also need many opportunities to see and read print. A classroom rich

in environmental print and being involved in shared, guided, and independent reading of a wide

range of genres including fiction and non-fiction will allow students to notice, think about, and

recall what words look like. They will also learn about the possible letter combinations in

English, the conventions of books and print, including concepts of words, letters, and sentences,

and the relationship between letters and sounds. Good spellers also have a positive attitude to

spelling. They display a curiosity about words, attempt unknown words, and take care of spelling

for publication. A classroom program that encourages risk-taking, promotes investigations of

sounds and words, and gives spelling ‘real life’ significance will be supportive of the spelling

development of all students (Gentry, J.R., 2021).

Across the different stages of primary school, Basic 1-2, 3-4, and 5-6, teaching emphases

will change according to the students’ stages of spelling development and spelling needs. In the

early years, Basic-2, there is generally a focus on teaching phonic knowledge and visual

strategies as this is what young writers try to use as they invent spelling at this stage. As students

move through the middle and upper levels of primary school, the focus changes to the teaching
and exploration of morphemic and etymological knowledge. This said attention could be given

to all the types of knowledge and the teaching of high-frequency words, at each stage, depending

on students’ needs. Assessment of students’ spelling ability can take many forms. The analysis

of students’ writing or a dictated writing task contributes to a rich profile of what each student

can do, with errors giving insights into which knowledge and strategies students are drawing

upon when problem-solving an unfamiliar word. Talking with students during writing

conferences can also provide further detail about the knowledge and strategies being used. While

spelling tests can be useful in providing standardized scores and spelling ages, it is vital to move

beyond the score to consider the types of errors being made. This richer data will then be useful

in designing differentiated learning programs in spelling. (Adoniou, 2019)

Understanding Teaching Strategy

A teaching strategy is a deliberate and systematic plan of action designed to achieve

specific educational goals (Hattie, 2020). It involves a sequence of activities that are

intentionally structured to facilitate student learning and engagement (Ambrose et al., 2020).

Effective teaching strategies aim to make the learning process more active, interactive, and

meaningful, by integrating teaching and learning activities in a cohesive and interrelated system

(Biggs & Tang, 2020). Teachers, students, and facilities are among the components of this

system. In the teaching and learning process, each component plays a specific role. After

creating a lesson plan, the teacher's next step is to develop effective teaching strategies to

facilitate engaging and productive learning activities (Dafid, 2021). Teaching strategies refer to

the deliberate plans and techniques employed by teachers to promote efficient and effective

teaching and learning processes. A teaching strategy is a comprehensive plan that outlines the

framework, anticipated learner behavior, and specific tactics required to achieve the desired
learning outcomes (Wiggins, 2020). This plan serves as a roadmap for instruction, guiding the

teacher's decisions and actions throughout the lesson (Tomlinson, 2020).

The Concept of Look and Say Method

The "look and say" method is a reading instruction approach that involves teaching

beginners to read by memorizing and recognizing whole words, rather than associating letters

with sounds (Moats, 2020). This method requires students to look at a word, hear its

pronunciation, and repeat it, relying on visual memory rather than phonetic awareness.

According to Nofiandari (2019) Look and Say Teaching Method is based on having children

recognize full short sentences. It is done through pictures, where the teacher can read each word

on the card while the child repeats. If a picture card is not used the students will guess what is on

the card, which is not the idea, so picture cards must be used.

According to Meynilda (2020), the look-and-say method is one method that can

increase students' language ability in vocabulary mastery. It teaches students to memorize words

by sight. Students learn carefully and draw on picture clues and keywords from the context.

Eventually, students learn to „sight read‟ the word, recognizing it through pattern recognition

without any conscious attempt to break the word down into its parts.

Based on the above explanation, it can be concluded that the look and say method is one

of the methods that uses related pictures to increase students' vocabulary. In this method, the

teacher says the words or sentences and asks the students to repeat them while pointing and

looking at each sentence as she/he repeats what the teacher says.

Nofiandari (2019) explains that in teaching the Look and Say method, the teacher

presents the word to the students while pointing to the corresponding object and saying it aloud.

The students then repeat the word. This process is repeated multiple times for each word. The

introduction of each word is brief and fast-paced, taking just a few minutes. Various word

recognition games can be utilized at this stage, such as matching words with pictures, pointing to

the object on the card, and guessing the word. In this study, the researcher chooses puzzle and

essay of picture as the method in look and say. There were many steps to apply in Look and Say.

a) First step, provide material about Noun and Verb.

b) Second step, provide a picture related to the puzzle, and then students write words into the puzzle

based on the picture.

c) Third steps, invite students to read all of the words accompanied with the meaning.

d) In The next step, the students must look which the word that the teacher read. After that, the

students must repeat the words with the correct pronunciation.

e) In The last step, students must answer one question correctly.

New words are systematically introduced to the students by letting them see the word,

hear the word, and see a picture or a sentence referring to the word. The picture is often used

with individual words written on them. The teachers are shown repetitively to the students until

they memorize the pattern of the word.

Nofiandari (2020) states that progressive texts use strictly controlled vocabularies,

limiting words to those already learned. Initially, students focus on mastering a few hundred
words. As they become proficient, new words are systematically introduced to their vocabulary.

Typically, a child would learn to recognize 1,500 to 3,000 words during their first three to four

years of schooling. He explained that the Look and Say method is an effective approach for

teachers to incorporate into the learning process. This method focuses on building a sight

vocabulary with the most common words, making it easier for students to remember each word.

The use of related pictures enhances the connection between the word and its meaning, aiding in

the retention of vocabulary.

The Look and Say method is a reading instruction approach that focuses on teaching

early reading skills to children through the recognition and memorization of whole words

(Moats, 2020). This method prioritizes visual recognition, where children learn to identify entire

words by sight, often using flashcards with printed words (Kilpatrick, 2020). The approach

typically involves presenting words within the context of sentences or stories, allowing children

to understand their meaning and usage, and connecting the visual shape of the word with its

meaning and pronunciation (Bowers & Bowers, 2020).

Frequent practice and reinforcement are essential components of the Look and Say method.

Words are reviewed regularly to ensure that students retain their recognition skills. Activities

often engage multiple senses, such as visual aids, listening to the word being read aloud, and

writing the word themselves. The method begins with simple, common words and progressively

introduces more complex vocabulary as the child's reading skills improve. New words are

systematically added to the child's repertoire, ensuring a steady progression in learning.

While recognizing words by sight is crucial, comprehension is equally emphasized. Children are

encouraged to understand the meaning of the words and sentences they read. This method aims

to build children's confidence in reading by allowing them to quickly recognize and read
common words. Successful recognition of words can motivate children to engage more with

reading activities. Parental involvement is also encouraged, creating a consistent learning

environment both at school and at home.