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Chapter 1 - Part 3

Module 3 covers the fundamentals of AC circuits, focusing on sinusoidal currents and their mathematical representations. It introduces concepts such as cycles, frequency, phasors, and impedance, explaining how these elements interact in both series and parallel circuits. The module emphasizes the importance of sinusoidal signals in engineering applications and provides a framework for analyzing AC circuits using phasor relationships.

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13 views6 pages

Chapter 1 - Part 3

Module 3 covers the fundamentals of AC circuits, focusing on sinusoidal currents and their mathematical representations. It introduces concepts such as cycles, frequency, phasors, and impedance, explaining how these elements interact in both series and parallel circuits. The module emphasizes the importance of sinusoidal signals in engineering applications and provides a framework for analyzing AC circuits using phasor relationships.

Uploaded by

yooganbobby
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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MODULE 3 : AC CIRCUIT

1.0 Introduction

A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac). Such a current reverses at regular
time intervals and has alternately positive and negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or
voltage sources are called ac circuits.

The importance of sinusoid:

• Nature itself is characteristically sinusoidal.


• A sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and transmit.
• Through Fourier analysis, any practical periodic signal can be represented by a sum of sinusoids.
• A sinusoid is easy to handle mathematically. The derivative and integral of a sinusoid are
themselves sinusoids.

AC circuits are applied in phase-shifters and bridges

1.1 Sinusoids

Figure 1.1

A waveform of the type shown in Fig. 1.1 is called a sine wave. It is the shape of the waveform of e.m.f.
produced by an alternator and thus the mains electricity supply is of ‘sinusoidal’ form.

One complete series of values is called a cycle. The time taken for an alternating quantity to complete one
cycle is called the period or the periodic time, T. The number of cycles completed in one second is called
the frequency, f, of the supply and is measured in hertz, Hz. The voltage and frequency of alternating
current (AC) electricity used in homes varies from country to country throughout the world. 43 countries
use 60Hz, while the rest use 50Hz.The standard frequency of the electricity supply in Malaysia is 50 Hz
while United State uses 60Hz.

The largest value reached in a half cycle is called the peak value or the maximum value or the amplitude
of the waveform. A peak-to-peak value of e.m.f. is shown in Fig. 1.1 and is the difference between the
maximum and minimum values in a cycle or 2 times of peak value.
Figure 1.2: Vm sin ωt: (a) as a function of ωt, (b) as a function of t

Consider the sinusoidal voltage


v (t ) = Vm sin ωt
where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid

Based on Figure 1.2a shows that ωT = 2π, that the sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds.

(1.1)
The reciprocal of this quantity is the number of cycles per second, known as the cyclic frequency f of the
sinusoid. Thus,

(1.2)
From equation (1.1) and (1.2) it is clear that,

Let us now consider a more general expression for the sinusoid

(1.3)

Where (ωt + φ) is the argument and φ is the phase. Both argument and phase can be in radians or degrees

Let us examine the two sinusoids as shown in Figure 1.3


Figure 1.3: Two sinusoids with different phases

A sine curve may not always start at 0˚. The starting point of V2 in Fig. 1.3 occurs first in time.V2 starts φ
radians earlier than V1. Therefore, we say that V2 leads V1 by φ. V1 starts φ radians later
than V2 that V1 lags V2 by φ. We can compare V1 and V2 in this manner because they operate at the same
frequency; they do not need to have the same amplitude.

1.2 Phasor
Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with than sine and
cosine functions. A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase
of a sinusoid.
A complex number z can be written in can be represented in two ways:

The relationship between the rectangular form and the polar form is shown in Fig. 1.5

Figure 1.5: Representation of a complex number z = x + jy = r φ.


By suppressing the time factor, we transform the sinusoid from the time domain to the phasor domain.
This transformation is summarized as follows:

(1.5)
Given a sinusoid v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + φ), we obtain the corresponding phasor as V = Vm φ.
From Eq.1.5, we see that to get the phasor representation of a sinusoid, we express it in cosine form and
take the magnitude and phase. Given a phasor, we obtain the time-domain representation as the cosine
function with the same magnitude as the phasor and the argument as ωt plus the phase of the phasor.
The idea of expressing information in alternate domains is fundamental to all areas of engineering.

1.3 Phasor Relationship for Circuit Elements


As stated in subtopic 4.2, represent a voltage or current in the phasor or frequency domain, and have to
apply this to circuits involving the passive elements R, L, and C. Thus, the passive elements have to
transform the voltage-current relationship from the time domain to the frequency domain for each
element with passive sign convention. Table below shows summarizes the time-domain and phasor-
domain representations of the circuit elements.
1.4 Impedance
We obtain Ohm’s law in phasor form for any type of element as

where Z is a frequency-dependent quantity known as impedance, measured in ohms or the impedance Z


of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I, measured in ohms Ω

Summarizes their impedances

1.5 Impedance Combination


1.5.1 Series Circuit

The concept of series circuit that involving the impedance same as stated in module 1 Basic Law
subtopic 1.12-1.16. In term of using resistance this circuit use impedance.
The same current I flow through the impedances.
The equivalent impedance at the input terminals is

or

1.5.2 Parallel Circuit


In the same manner, we can obtain the equivalent impedance or admittance of the N parallel-connected
impedances shown in Figure below.

The equivalent impedance is

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