UNIT-I

Sinusoidal steady state analysis

Phasor Diagrams and Phasor Algebra
Phasor Diagrams are a graphical way of representing the magnitude and
directional relationship between two or more alternating quantities

Phasor diagrams present a graphical representation, plotted on a coordinate

system, of the phase relationship between the voltages and currents within
passive components or a whole circuit. Generally, phasors are defined relative
to a reference phasor which is always points to the right along the x-axis.
Sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency can have a Phase Difference
between themselves which represents the angular difference of the two
sinusoidal waveforms. Also the terms “lead” and “lag” as well as “in-phase” and
“out-of-phase” are commonly used to indicate the relationship of one
sinusoidal waveform to another. The generalized sinusoidal expression given
as: A(t) = Am sin(ωt ± Φ) represents the sinusoid in the time-domain form.
But when presented mathematically in this way it can sometimes be difficult to
visualize the angular or phasor difference between the two (or more) sinusoidal
waveforms. One way to overcome this problem is to represent the sinusoids
graphically within the spacial or phasor-domain form by using Phasor
Diagrams, and this is achieved by the rotating vector method.
Basically a rotating vector, also regarded as a “Phase Vector“, is a scaled line
whose length represents an AC quantity that has both magnitude (“peak
amplitude”) and direction (“phase”) and which has been “frozen” at some point
in time.
A vector that has an arrow head at one end which signifies partly the
maximum value of the vector quantity ( Vm or Im ) and partly the end of the
vector which rotates.
Generally, vectors are assumed to pivot at one end around a fixed zero point
known as the “point of origin”. The arrowed end represents the quantity which
freely rotates in an anti-clockwise direction at an angular velocity, ( ω ). This
anti-clockwise rotation of the vector is considered to be a positive rotation.
Likewise, a clockwise rotation is considered to be a negative rotation.
Although the both the terms vectors and phasors are used to describe a
rotating line that itself has both magnitude and direction, the main difference
between the two is that a vectors magnitude is the “peak value” of the sinusoid
while a phasors complex magnitude is the “rms value” of the sinusoid as they
deal with AC circuits which have reactance. In both cases the phase angle,
direction and angular velocity remains the same.

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The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant in time can be represented
by phasor diagrams. Thus phasor diagrams can be thought of as representing
“functions of time”. A complete sine wave can be constructed by a single vector
rotating anti-clockwise at an angular velocity of ω = 2πƒ, where ƒ denotes the
frequency of the waveform. Then a Phasor is a quantity that has both
“Magnitude” and “Direction”.
Also, vectors obey the parallelogram law of addition and subtraction so can be
added together to produce a vector sum which rotates anticlockwise at an
angular speed. Phasors on the otherhand represent the mathematical:
Rectangular, Polar or Exponential form. For example, (a + jb). Thus, phasor
notation defines the effective (rms) magnitude of voltages and currents.
Generally, when constructing a phasor diagram, angular velocity of a sine wave
is always assumed to be: ω in rad/sec. Consider the phasor diagram below.
Phasor Diagrams for a Sinusoidal Waveform

As the single vector rotates in an anti-clockwise direction, its tip at point A will
rotate one complete revolution of 360o or 2π representing one complete cycle.
If the length of its moving tip is transferred at different angular intervals in
time to a graph as shown above, a sinusoidal waveform would be drawn
starting at the left with zero time. Each position along the horizontal axis
indicates the time that has elapsed since zero time, t = 0. When the vector is
horizontal the tip of the vector represents the angles at 0o, 180o and at 360o.
Likewise, when the tip of the vector is vertical it represents the positive peak
value, ( +Am ) at 90o or π/2 and the negative peak value, ( -Am ) at
270o or 3π/2. Then the time axis of the waveform represents the angle either in
degrees or radians through which the phasor has moved. So we can say that a
phasor represent a scaled voltage or current value of a rotating vector which is

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“frozen” at some point in time, ( t ) and in our example above, this is at an
angle of 30o.
Sometimes when we are analysing alternating waveforms we may need to know
the position of the phasor, representing the alternating quantity at some
particular point especially when we want to compare two different waveforms
on the same axis. For example, voltage and current. We have assumed in the
waveform above that the waveform starts at time t = 0 with a corresponding
phase angle in either degrees or radians.
But if a second waveform starts to the left or to the right of this zero point or
we want to represent in phasor notation the relationship between the two
waveforms then we will need to take into account this phase difference, Φ of
the waveform. Consider the diagram below of Phase Difference.
Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform

The generalized mathematical expression to define these two sinusoidal

quantities will be written as:

The current, i is lagging the voltage, v by angle Φ and in our example above
this is 30o. So the difference between the two phasors representing the two
sinusoidal quantities is angle Φ and the resulting phasor diagram will be.
Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal Waveform

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The phasor diagram is drawn corresponding to time zero ( t = 0 ) on the
horizontal axis. The lengths of the phasors are proportional to the values of the
voltage, ( V ) and the current, ( I ) at the instant in time that the phasor
diagram is drawn.
The current phasor lags the voltage phasor by the angle, Φ, as the two phasors
rotate in an anticlockwise direction as stated earlier, therefore the angle, Φ is
also measured in the same anticlockwise direction.

If however, the waveforms are frozen at time, t = 30o, the corresponding phasor
diagram would look like the one shown on the right. Once again the current
phasor lags behind the voltage phasor as the two waveforms are of the same
frequency.
However, as the current waveform is now crossing the horizontal zero axis line
at this instant in time we can use the current phasor as our new reference and
correctly say that the voltage phasor is “leading” the current phasor by
angle, Φ. Either way, one phasor is designated as the reference phasor and all
the other phasors will be either leading or lagging with respect to this
reference.
Phasor Addition of Phasor Diagrams
One good use of phasors is for the summing of sinusoids of the same
frequency. Sometimes it is necessary when studying sinusoids to add together
two alternating waveforms, for example in an AC series circuit, that are not in-
phase with each other.
If they are “in-phase” that is, there is no phase shift then they can be added
together in the same way as DC values to find the algebraic sum of the two
vectors. For example, if two voltages of say 50 volts and 25 volts respectively

4
are together “in-phase”, they will add or sum together to form one voltage of 75
volts (50 + 25).
If however, they are not in-phase that is, they do not have identical directions
or starting point then the phase angle between them needs to be taken into
account so they are added together using phasor diagrams to determine
their Resultant Phasor or Vector Sum by using the parallelogram law.
Consider two AC voltages, V1 having a peak voltage of 20 volts, and V2 having a
peak voltage of 30 volts where V1 leads V2 by 60o.
The total voltage, VT of the two voltages can be found by firstly drawing a
phasor diagram representing the two vectors and then constructing a
parallelogram in which two of the sides are the voltages, V1 and V2 as shown
below.
Phasor Addition of two Phasors

By drawing out the two phasors to scale onto graph paper, their phasor
sum V1 + V2 can be easily found by measuring the length of the diagonal line,
known as the “resultant r-vector”, from the zero point to the intersection of the
construction lines 0-A. The downside of this graphical method is that it is time
consuming when drawing the phasors to scale.
Also, while this graphical method gives an answer which is accurate enough for
most purposes, it may produce an error if not drawn accurately or correctly to
scale. Then one way to ensure that the correct answer is always obtained is by
an analytical method.
Mathematically we can add the two voltages together by firstly finding their
“vertical” and “horizontal” directions, and from this we can then calculate both
the “vertical” and “horizontal” components for the resultant “r vector”, VT. This
analytical method which uses the cosine and sine rule to find this resultant
value is commonly called the Rectangular Form.
In the rectangular form, the phasor is divided up into a real part, x and an
imaginary part, y forming the generalized expression Z = x ± jy. ( we will
discuss this in more detail in the next tutorial ). This then gives us a
mathematical expression that represents both the magnitude and the phase of
the sinusoidal voltage as:

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Definition of a Complex Sinusoid

V=VmCos()+ jVm(Sin()

So the addition of two vectors, A and B using the previous generalized

expression is as follows:
A=x+iy B=w+jz
A+B = (x+y) + j(y+z)
Phasor Addition using Rectangular Form
Voltage, V2 of 30 volts points in the reference direction along the horizontal
zero axis, then it has a horizontal component but no vertical component as
follows.
 Horizontal Component = 30 cos 0o = 30 volts
 Vertical Component = 30 sin 0o = 0 volts
 This then gives us the rectangular expression for voltage V2 of: 30 + j0
Voltage, V1 of 20 volts leads voltage, V2 by 60o, then it has both horizontal and
vertical components as follows.
 Horizontal Component = 20 cos 60o = 20 x 0.5 = 10 volts
 Vertical Component = 20 sin 60o = 20 x 0.866 = 17.32 volts
 This then gives us the rectangular expression for
voltage V1 of: 10 + j17.32
The resultant voltage, VT is found by adding together the horizontal and vertical
components as follows.
 VHorizontal = sum of real parts of V1 and V2 = 30 + 10 = 40 volts
 VVertical = sum of imaginary parts of V1 and V2 = 0 + 17.32 = 17.32 volts
Now that both the real and imaginary values have been found the magnitude of
voltage, VT is determined by simply using Pythagoras’s Theorem for a
90o triangle as follows.

V T =√ ( Real ∨Horizental Component ) + ( Imaginary ∨Vertical Component )

2 2

V T =√ ( 40 ) + ( 17.32 )
2 2

V T =43.6 volts

Resultant Value of VT
Then the resulting phasor diagram will be:

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Phasor Subtraction of Phasor Diagrams
Phasor subtraction is very similar to the above rectangular method of addition,
except this time the vector difference is the other diagonal of the parallelogram
between the two voltages of V1 and V2 as shown.

Vector Subtraction of two Phasors

This time instead of “adding” together both the horizontal and vertical
components we take them away, subtraction.

The 3-Phase Phasor Diagrams

Previously we have only looked at single-phase AC waveforms where a single
multi-turn coil rotates within a magnetic field. But if three identical coils each
with the same number of coil turns are placed at an electrical angle of 120 o to
each other on the same rotor shaft, a three-phase voltage supply would be
generated.

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A balanced three-phase voltage supply consists of three individual sinusoidal
voltages that are all equal in magnitude and frequency but are out-of-phase
with each other by exactly 120o electrical degrees.
Standard practice is to color code the three phases asRed , Yellow and Blue to
identify each individual phase with the red phase as the reference phase. The
normal sequence of rotation for a three phase supply is Red followed byYellow
followed by Blue , ( R, Y, B ).
As with the single-phase phasors above, the phasors representing a three-
phase system also rotate in an anti-clockwise direction around a central point
as indicated by the arrow marked ω in rad/s. The phasors for a three-phase
balanced star or delta connected system are shown below.
Three-phase Phasor Diagrams

The phase voltages are all equal in magnitude but only differ in their phase
angle. The three windings of the coils are connected together at points, a 1,
b1 and c1 to produce a common neutral connection for the three individual
phases. Then if the red phase is taken as the reference phase each individual
phase voltage can be defined with respect to the common neutral as.
Three-phase Voltage Equations

8
 If the red phase voltage, VRN is taken as the reference voltage as stated earlier
then the phase sequence will be R – Y – B so the voltage in the yellow phase
lags VRN by 120o, and the voltage in the blue phase lags VYN also by 120o. But
we can also say the blue phase voltage, VBN leads the red phase voltage, VRN by
120o.
One final point about a three-phase system. As the three individual sinusoidal
voltages have a fixed relationship between each other of 120 o they are said to
be “balanced” therefore, in a set of balanced three phase voltages their phasor
sum will always be zero as: Va + Vb + Vc = 0
Admittance:
Admittance is defined as a measure of how easily a circuit or device will allow
current to flow through it. Admittance is the reciprocal (inverse) of
impedance,similar to how conductance and resistance are related. The SI unit
of admittance is the siemens (symbol S).
To reiterate the above definition: let us first go through some important terms
which associated with the topic admittance. We all know that Resistance(R)
has only magnitude but no phase. We can say that it is the measure of
opposition for the flow of current.
In an AC circuit; in addition to the resistance, two impeding mechanisms
(Inductance and Capacitance) have to be considered. So the term impedance is
introduced which have the same function of resistance but have both
magnitude and phase. Its real part is resistance, and the imaginary part is
reactance, which came from the impeding mechanism.
When looking at admittance vs impedance, admittance is the inverse (i.e. the
reciprocal) of impedance. Therefore, it has the opposite function of impedance.
That is, we can say it is the measure of the flow of current which is allowed by
a device or a circuit. Admittance also measures the dynamic effects of
susceptance of a material to polarization and is measured in Siemens or Mho.
Oliver Heaviside introduced this in December 1887.
Derivation of Admittance from Impedance
Impedance consists of real part (resistance) and imaginary part (reactance).
The symbol for impedance is the Z symbol, and the symbol for admittance is
the Y symbol.

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 Admittance is also a complex number as impedance which is having a
realpart, Conductance (G) and imaginary part, Susceptance (B).

(it is negative for capacitive susceptance and positive for inductive susceptance)

Admittance Triangle
It is formed by admittance (Y), susceptance (B) and conductance (G) as
shown below.

From admittance triangle,

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Admittance of a Series Circuit
When a circuit consists of Resistance and Inductance reactance in
series is considered as shown below.

When the circuit consist of Resistance and Capacitive reactance

in series is considered as shown below.

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Admittance of a Parallel Circuit
A circuit which consists of two branches say A and B are considered as shown
in figure below. ‘A’ comprises of an inductive reactance, X L and a resistance, R1
and ‘B’ comprises of a capacitive reactance, X C and a resistance , R 2. The
voltage, V is applied to the circuit.

For Branch A

For Branch B

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 So, if the admittance of a circuit is known, then the total current and
power factor can be obtained easily..
Purely Resistive Circuit
AC circuit consisting of a pure resistor to which an alternating voltage
vt=Vmsinωt is applied is shown in fig.

As shown in the figure , voltage source vt=Vmsinωt

v t V m sinωt
According to Ohms law i− =
R R
Vm
i¿( )sinωt=Imsinωt
R
From above it is clear that current is in phase with voltage for pure resistive
circuit.
The sinewave and vector representation of vt=Vmsinωtand i= =Imsinωt are

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Power:
The instantaneous power drawn by this circuit is given by product of
instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current
Instantaneous Power:
P(t)=v X t=(Vmsinωt) X(I m sinωt)=V mI m sin 2ωt
V m I m(1−cos ω t )
¿
2
Average Power:

( )
V m I m ( 1−coe ω t )
0⨛2π
Pavg= 2
2π

VmIm
Pavg= 4π
¿

Vm Im
Pavg= 4π
[ ( 2 π −0 ) −( 0−0 ) ]

P avg =
V mIm
2 = (
V mIm
√2 √ 2 )
P avg = V rms I rms
P=VI
The average power consumed by purely resistive circuit is multiplication of
Vrms and Irms
Purely Inductive Circuit
The Following fig. shows an AC circuit consisting of a pure Inductor to which
an alternating voltage vt=Vmsinωt is applied.

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Due to self inductance of the coil there will be emf induced in it . This back emf
will oppose the instantaneous rise or fall of current through the coil is given by

( di )
e L=L
( dt )
As circuit does not contain any resistance , there is no ohmic drop and hence
applied voltage is equal to back emf.

( di ) ( di )
vt=−e L i.e vt = -[−L ( dt ) ] or vt= L
( dt )
therefore

( di ) V m sinωt.dt
Vmsinωt= L
( dt )
so that di=
L

V m sinωt.dt
Integrating on both sides we get ⨛di=⨛ L .

V m cosωt. Vm
i=
ωL
or i=Im Sin(ωt-900) i.e ω L =Im

From above equation it is clear that the current lags voltage by 90 0 in a purely
inductive circuit

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Power
The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is given by the product
of the instantaneous values of voltage and current.

Instantaneous Power Pi= v X i = V mSinωt. X ImSin(ωt-900)

= V m Sinωt X ( -Im Cos ω t)

=-2¿2
= ¿

( )
VmIm sin 2 ( ω t )
0⨛2π
Average PowerPavg= 2
d ωt
2π

Pavg= 4π (
[
2 )
V m I m [−cos ω t ] 2π
]0

VmIm
= [ cos 4 π−cos 0 ]
8π
¿0
The average power consumed by purely inductive circuit is zero
Purely Capacitive Circuit
The following fig. shows a capacitor of capacitance C farads connected to an
a.c. voltage supply vt=Vmsinωt

As shown in figure voltage source vt=Vmsinωt

A pure capacitor has zero resistance , thus alternating current applied to the
plates of capacitor , the capacitor is charged .

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If the charge on capacitor plates is ‘q’ and the potential difference between the
plates is at any instant is ‘vt’ , then we know that
Q=Cvt = CVmsinωt

The current is given by rate of change of charge

dq
it=
dt
d CV m sinωt
it=
dt

it=ωCVm cos ωt
Vm
it=
(
1
)
cos ωt
ωC
Vm
it=
( Xc)
cos ωt

It=Imsin(ωt + 900)
From above equation it is clear that current leads by voltage by 90 0 in a purely
capacitive circuit

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Power
The instantaneous power drawn by the circuit is given by the product of
Instantaneous values of voltage and current.
Instantaneous power

Pt=v X I = Vmsinωt X Imsin(ωt + 900)

= Vmsin ωt X Imcos(ωt)
= VmIm sin ωt cos(ωt)
= (VmIm 2 sin ωt cos(ωt))/2
=[(VmIm )/2] sin 2ωt
Average Power

( )
VmIm sin 2 ( ω t )
0⨛2π
Average Power Pavg= 2 dωt
2π

Pavg=
4π (
[
2 )
V m I m [−cos ω t ] 2π
]0

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 VmIm
= [ cos 4 π−cos 0 ]
8π
¿0

Series Resistance-Inductance (R-L) Circuit

Consider a circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R ohms and a purely
inductive coil of inductance L henry in series as shown.

In the series circuit, the current it is flowing thru R and L will be the same.
But the voltage across them is will be different. The vector sum of voltage
across resistor VR and voltage across inductor VL will be equal to supply
voltage VS
We know that in a purely resistive circuit the voltage and current both are in
phase and therefore vector VR is drawn superimposed onto the current vector
and in purely inductive circuit the current I lags the voltage V L by 900

So draw the vector diagram , first I taken as the reference , next VR drawn in
phase with I and V L is drawn leading 900 with respect to I.The supply voltage
V is vector sum of VR and VLThus from above , it can be said that the current in
series R-L circuit lags the applied voltage by an angle Ф

v=VmSin(ωt) i=ImSin(ωt - Ф)

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 R P
Power Factor = cos Ф = =
Z S
Power: The instantaneous power drawn by this circuit is given by the product
of instantaneous values of voltage and current.
Instantaneous Power Pi= v X i = V mSinωt. X ImSin(ωt-Ф)
= V m I m Sinωt X Sin ( ω t- Ф )
=-2 ¿2
V m Im
= 2
[Cos Ф - Cos (2 ω t- Ф )
V m Im
Average Power Pav= 0 ⨛ 2 π 2 [Cos Ф - Cos (2 ω t- Ф ) dωt
V m Im
= 0 ⨛ 2 π 2 π [(1/2) Cos Ф - Cos (2 ω t- Ф ) dωt
V m Im
= 4 π [ 0 ⨛ 2 π Cos Ф dωt -0 ⨛ 2 π Cos (2 ω t- Ф ) dωt]
V m Im
= 4 π [Cos Ф (ωt)02π -{Sin (2 ω t- Ф )/2 \} 02 π ]
V m Im V mI m
Pav= 4 π [ 2 π cos Ф ] − 8 π [ sin ( 4 π −Ф )−sin (−Ф ) ]

V m Im VmIm
= 2
[ cos Ф ] −
8π
[ sin (−Ф ) +sin ( Ф ) ]

V m Im V m Im
= [ cos Ф ] −0 = CosФ
2 2

(V m)( I m )
= ( √ 2)(√ 2) CosФ

Pav =V.I.cosФ

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Series Resistance-Capacitance Circuit
Consider a series circuit consisting of resistor R ohms and pure capacitor C

In the series circuit current It is flowing thru R and C will be the same but the
voltage across them will be different.The vector sum of voltage across resistor
VR and voltage across capacitor VC will be equal to applied voltage Vt
We know that voltage and current are in phase in pure resistor R and therefore
voltage vector VR and current vector I are super imposed to scale .Similarly
current I leads voltage Vc by 900 .So vector diagram isdrawn taking current
vector I as reference and voltage vector V R in phase with it and voltage vector V C
lagging by 900 .Supply voltage V is vector sum of voltage VR and voltage VC
Thus from above it is clear that current in series RC circuit leads volage V by
angle Фİf supply voltage v=VmSin(ωt) then current i=ImSin(ωt - Ф)

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 R P
Power Factor = cos Ф = Z = S

Power: The instantaneous power drawn by this circuit is given by the product
of instantaneous values of voltage and current.

Instantaneous Power Pi= v X i = V mSinωt. X ImSin(ωt+Ф)

= V m I m Sinωt X Sin ( ω t+ Ф )
=-2 ¿2
V m Im
= 2
[ Cos Ф - Cos (2 ω t+ Ф )

V m Im
Average Power Pav= 0⨛2π
2
[Cos Ф - Cos (2 ω t+Ф ) ]dωt
V m Im
= 0 ⨛ 2 π 2 π [(1/2) [Cos Ф - Cos (2 ω t+ Ф )]dωt
V m Im
= 4 π [ 0 ⨛ 2 π Cos Ф dωt -0 ⨛ 2 π Cos (2 ω t+Ф ) dωt]
V m Im
= 4 π [Cos Ф (ωt)02π -{Sin (2 ω t+Ф )/2 \}0 2 π ]
V m Im V mI m
Pav= 4 π [ 2 π cos Ф ] − 8 π [ sin ( 4 π +Ф )−sin ( Ф ) ]

V m Im VmIm
= 2
[ cos Ф ] −
8π
[ sin (Ф )−sin ( Ф ) ]

V m Im V m Im
= [ cos Ф ] −0 = CosФ
2 2

(V m)( I m )
= (√ 2)(√ 2) CosФ

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Pav =V.I.cosФ
Series RLC circuit
Consider a circuit consisting of resistor R ,pure inductor of inductance L henry
and pure capacitor of capacitance C faradsin series. There are three cases
 Case 1: VL=VC
 Case 2: VL˃VC
 Case 3: VL˂VC
Case 1: VL=VC Current I is taken as reference VR is drawn in phase with I , VL is
drawn leading I by 900 , VC is drawn lagging I by 900

Case 2: VL˃VC Case 3: VL˂VC

In this case phasor diagram is In this case phasor diagram is

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PROBLEMS
Example 1
Write down the equation for a sinusoidal voltage of 50 Hz and its peak value is
20 V. Draw the corresponding voltage versus time graph.
Solution
F=50 Hz. ,Vm=20V;
Instantaneous voltage v=VmSin(ωt) V= Vm Sin(2πft)
= 20 Sin(2π X 50)t
V = 20Sin(314t)
Time for one cycle=T=!/f=1/50=0.02 sec
The waveform is given below

Example2
The equation for an alternating current is given by i = 77 sin 314t. Find the
peak value, frequency, time period and instantaneous value at t = 2 ms.
Solution
i = 77 sin 314t ; t = 2 ms = 2×10-3 s
The general equation of an alternating current is i = Im sin ωt . On comparison,
(i) Peak value, Im = 77 A

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(ii) Frequency, f = ω/2π = 314 / 2 ×3.14 = 50 Hz
Time period, T = 1/f = 150 = 0 .02 s
(iv) At t = 2 m s,
Instantaneous value,
i = 77sin(314×2×10−3 )
i = 45.24 A
AC circuit containing only an inductor: Solved Example Problems
Example3
A 400 mH coil of negligible resistance is connected to an AC circuit in which an
effective current of 6 mA is flowing. Find out the voltage across the coil if the
frequency is 1000 Hz.
Solution
L = 400 x 10-3 H; Ieff = 6 x 10-3A
f = 1000 Hz
Inductive Reactance , Xl= ωL = 2X 3.14 X 1000 X 0.4
= 2512 Ω
AC circuit containing only a capacitor: Solved Example Problems
Example 4
A capacitor of capacitance 102/π µF is connected across a 220 V, 50 Hz A.C.
mains. Calculate the capacitive reactance, RMS value of current and write
down the equations of voltage and current.
Solution:
C=(102/π) X 10-6; V= 220 V; f=50 Hz.

( )1
=
1
=100 Ω

(( )
Capacitive reactance= ωC 2 X π X 50 X 102 X 10−6
π )
RMS value of current Irms= ( XC )
V rms 220
=
100
=2.2 A

Vm= 220 X 1.414= 311 V

Im = 2.2 X 1,414 = 3.1 A
Equations of voltage and current are
v=311 Sin(314t) V
i=2.2 Sin(314t + 900) A
Quality factor or Q–factor: Solved Example Problems

Example5
Find the impedance of a series RLC circuit if the inductive reactance, capacitive
reactance and resistance are 184 Ω, 144 Ω and 30 Ω respectively. Also
calculate the phase angle between voltage and current.
Solution

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XL = 184 Ω; XC = 144 ΩR = 30 Ω
(i ) The impedance is

Impedance, Z = 50 Ω
(ii) Phase angle is

φ = 53.1

Example6
A 500 μH inductor, 80/π2 pF capacitor and a 628 Ω resistor are connected to
form a series RLC circuit. Calculate the resonant frequency and Q-factor of this
circuit at resonance.
Solution
L=500×10-6H; C = 80/π2 ×10−12 F; R = 628Ω
Resonant frequency f=¿
ωL ω 2 X 3.1 X X 500e-6
Q-factor = = =12.5
R 628

(i) Quality factor is

Q =12.5

Example7
Find the instantaneous value of alternating voltage υ = 10 sin(3 π×104 t) volt at
i) 0 s ii) 50 μs iii) 75 μs.
Solution
The given equation is υ = 10sin (3 π×104 t)
At t= )secυ = 10sin (0) = 0
At t- 50μS υ = 10sin (3 π×104 X 50 X 10-6)=-9.99 V
At t= 75μS= 10sin (3 π×104 X75 X 10-6)= 7.09 V

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Example8
The current in an inductive circuit is given by 0.3 sin (200t – 40°) A. Write the
equation for the voltage across it if the inductance is 40 mH.
Solution
L = 40 × 10-3 H; i = 0.1 sin (200t – 40º)
XL = ωL = 200 × 40 × 10-3 = 8 Ω
Vm = Im XL = 0.3 × 8 = 2.4 V
In an inductive circuit, the voltage leads the current by 90o Therefore,
v = Vm sin ( ωt +90º)
v = 2 . 4 sin(200t −40 + 90 º)
v = 2 . 4 sin(200t +50 º)volt
Example 9
Find the equivalent impedance of the following circuit:
Solution
R = 12 ohm, L = 10 mH, f = 159 Hz

The elements are in series, so we realise that their complex impedances should
be added:
Zeq = ZR + ZL = R + j w L = 12 + j*2*p*159*0.01 = (12 + j 9.99) ohm = 15.6
ej39.8° ohm.
Yeq = 1/Zeq = 0.064 e– j 39.8° S = 0.0492 – j 0.0409 S

Phasor diagram showing the construction of Zeq with the parallelogram rule

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As the diagram shows, the total impedance, Zeq, can be considered as a
complex resultant vector derived using the parallelogram rule from the complex
impedances ZR and ZL .
Example 10
Find the equivalent impedance and admittance of this parallel circuit:

Solution
R =20 ohm, C = 5 mF, f = 20 kHz
The admittance:

The impedance using the Ztot= Z1 Z2 / (Z1 + Z2 ) formula for parallel

impedances:

Example 11

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Find the impedance of a series circuit with R = 10 ohm, C = 4 mF, and L = 0.3
mH, at an angular frequency w = 50 krad/s (f = w / 2p = 7.957 kHz ).
Solution
R = 10 ohm, C = 4 mF, L = 0.3 mH, w = 50 krad/s (f = w / 2p = 7.957 kHz )
Z = R + j w L – j / wC = 10 + j 5*104 * 3*10-4 – j / (5*104 *4 * 10-6 ) = 10 + j 15
–j5

Z = (10 + j 10) ohm = 14.14 ej 45° ohms.

Starting with the phasor diagram above, let’s use the triangle or geometric
construction rule to find the equivalent impedance. We start by moving the tail
of ZR to the tip of ZL. Then we move the tail of ZC to the tip of ZR. Now the
resultant Zeq will exactly close the polygon starting from the tail of the
first ZR phasor and ending at the tip of ZC.
The phasor diagram showing the geometric construction of Zeq

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Since the circuit’s impedance has a positive phase like an inductor, we can call
it an inductive circuit–at least at this frequency!
Example 12
Find the impedance of three components connected in parallel: R = 4 ohm, C =
4 mF, and L = 0.3 mH, at an angular frequency w = 50 krad/s (f = w / 2p =
7.947 kHz).

Solution
R = 4 ohm, C = 4 mF,L = 0.3 mH, w = 50 krad/s (f = w / 2p = 7.947 kHz)
Noting that this is a parallel circuit, we solve first for the admittance:
1/Z = 1/R +1/ j w L + jwC = 0.25 – j/15 +j0.2 = 0.25 +j 0.1333
Z = 1/(0.25 + j 0.133) = (0.25 – j 0.133)/0.0802 = 3.11 – j 1.65 =3.5238 e–
j 28.1°
ohms.
Example 13
Find the equivalent impedance of the following more complicated circuit at
frequency f=50 Hz:

Solution
f=50 Hz ,R1=50 Ω ,R2=250 Ω R3=50 Ω ,L3=1 H ,C=100 x 1O-3 F
We need a strategy before we begin. First we’ll reduce C and R2 to an
equivalent impedance, ZRC. Then, seeing that ZRC is in parallel with the series-
connected L3 and R3, we’ll compute the equivalent impedance of their parallel
connection, Z2. Finally, we calculate Zeq as the sum of Z1 and Z2.
Here’s the calculation of ZRC:

Here’s the calculation of Z2:

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And finally:
Zeq = Z1 + Z2 = (55.47 – j 34.45) ohm = 65.3 e–j31.8° ohm
Example 13
Write down the equation for a sinusoidal voltage of 50 Hz and its peak value is
20 V. Draw the corresponding voltage versus time graph.
Solution
F=50 Hz. ,Vm=20V;
Instantaneous voltage v=VmSin(ωt) V= Vm Sin(2πft)
= 20 Sin(2π X 50)t
V = 20Sin(314t)
Time for one cycle=T=!/f=1/50=0.02 sec
The waveform is given below

Example 14
The equation for an alternating current is given by i = 77 sin 314t. Find the
peak value, frequency, time period and instantaneous value at t = 2 ms.
Solution
i = 77 sin 314t ; t = 2 ms = 2×10-3 s
The general equation of an alternating current is i = Im sin ωt . On comparsion,
(i) Peak value, Im = 77 A
(ii) Frequency, f = ω/2π = 314 / 2 ×3.14 = 50 Hz
Time period, T = 1/f = 150 = 0 .02 s
(iv) At t = 2 m s,
Instantaneous value,
i = 77sin(314×2×10−3 )
i = 45.24 A
AC circuit containing only an inductor: Solved Example Problems
Example 15

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A 400 mH coil of negligible resistance is connected to an AC circuit in which an
effective current of 6 mA is flowing. Find out the voltage across the coil if the
frequency is 1000 Hz.
Solution
L = 400 x 10-3 H; Ieff = 6 x 10-3A ,f = 1000 Hz
Inductive Reactance , Xl= ωL = 2X 3.14 X 1000 X 0.4
= 2512 Ω
AC circuit containing only a capacitor: Solved Example Problems
Example 16
A capacitor of capacitance 102/π µF is connected across a 220 V, 50 Hz A.C.
mains. Calculate the capacitive reactance, RMS value of current and write
down the equations of voltage and current.
Solution:
C=(102/π) X 10-6; V= 220 V; f=50 Hz.

( )
1
=
1
=100 Ω
(( ) )
Capacitive reactance= ωC 102
2 X π X 50 X X 10−6
π

RMS value of current Irms= ( XC )

Vrms 220
=
100
=2.2 A

Vm= 220 X 1.414= 311 V

Im = 2.2 X 1,414 = 3.1 A
Equations of voltage and current are
v=311 Sin(314t) V
i=2.2 Sin(314t + 900) A
Quality factor or Q–factor: Solved Example Problems

Example 17
Find the impedance of a series RLC circuit if the inductive reactance, capacitive
reactance and resistance are 184 Ω, 144 Ω and 30 Ω respectively. Also
calculate the phase angle between voltage and current.
Solution
XL = 184 Ω; XC = 144 Ω ,R = 30 Ω
(i ) The impedance is

Impedance, Z = 50 Ω

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(ii) Phase angle is

φ = 53.1

Example 18
A 500 μH inductor, 80/π2 pF capacitor and a 628 Ω resistor are connected to
form a series RLC circuit. Calculate the resonant frequency and Q-factor of this
circuit at resonance.
Solution
L=500×10-6H; C = 80/π2 ×10−12 F; R = 628Ω
Resonant frequency f=¿
ωL ω 2 X 3.1 X X 500e-6
Q-factor = = =12.5
R 628

(i) Quality factor is

Q =12.5

Example 19
Find the instantaneous value of alternating voltage υ = 10 sin(3 π×104 t) volt at
i) 0 s ii) 50 μs iii) 75 μs.
Solution
The given equation is υ = 10sin (3 π×104 t)
At t= )secυ = 10sin (0) = 0
At t- 50μS υ = 10sin (3 π×104 X 50 X 10-6)=-9.99 V
At t= 75μS= 10sin (3 π×104 X75 X 10-6)= 7.09 V

Example 20
The current in an inductive circuit is given by 0.3 sin (200t – 40°) A. Write the
equation for the voltage across it if the inductance is 40 mH.
Solution
L = 40 × 10-3 H; i = 0.1 sin (200t – 40º)
XL = ωL = 200 × 40 × 10-3 = 8 Ω
Vm = Im XL = 0.3 × 8 = 2.4 V
In an inductive circuit, the voltage leads the current by 90o Therefore,

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v = Vm sin ( ωt +90º)
v = 2 . 4 sin(200t −40 + 90 º)
v = 2 . 4 sin(200t +50 º)volt
Coupled Circuits
An electric circuit is said to be a coupled circuit, when there exists a mutual
inductance between the coils (or inductors) present in that circuit. Coil is
nothing but the series combination of resistor and inductor. In the absence of
resistor, coil becomes inductor. Sometimes, the terms coil and inductor are
interchangeably used.
Dot Convention
Dot convention is a technique, which gives the details about voltage polarity at
the dotted terminal. This information is useful, while writing KVL equations.
 If the current enters at the dotted terminal of one coil (or inductor),
then it induces a voltage at another coil (or inductor), which is
having positive polarity at the dotted terminal.
 If the current leaves from the dotted terminal of one coil (or
inductor), then it induces a voltage at another coil (or inductor),
which is having negative polarity at the dotted terminal.
Classification of Coupling
We can classify coupling into the following two categories.

 Electrical Coupling
 Magnetic Coupling
Now, let us discuss about each type of coupling one by one.
Electrical Coupling
Electrical coupling occurs, when there exists a physical connection between
two coils (or inductors). This coupling can be of either aiding type or opposing
type. It is based on whether the current enters at the dotted terminal or leaves
from the dotted terminal.
Coupling of Aiding type
Consider the following electric circuit, which is having two inductors that are
connected in series.

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Since the two inductors are connected in series, the same current I flow
through both inductors having self-inductances L1 and L2.
In this case, the current, I enter at the dotted terminal of each inductor. Hence,
the induced voltage in each inductor will be having positive polarity at the
dotted terminal due to the current flowing in another coil.
Apply KVL around the loop of the above electric circuit or network.

( dIdt )−M ( dIdt )−L2( dIdt )−M ( dIdt )=0

V −L 1

¿ ˃V =L1 ( )+ M ( ) + L 2 ( )+ M ( )
dI dI dI dI
dt dt dt dt

¿ ˃V =L1 ( ) +2 M ( ) + L2 ( )
dI dI dI
dt dt dt

¿ ˃ Leq ( )=L 1 ( )+ 2 M ( ) + L 2 ( )
dI dI dI dI
dt dt dt dt

The above equation is in the form of V =Leq ( )

dI
dt
Therefore, the equivalent inductance of series combination of inductors
shown in the above figure is
Leq=L1+2 M + L2
In this case, the equivalent inductance has been increased by 2M. Hence, the
above electrical circuit is an example of electrical coupling which is
of aiding type.
Coupling of Opposing type
Consider the following electric circuit, which is having two inductors that are
connected in series.

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In the above circuit, the current I enters at the dotted terminal of the inductor
having an inductance of L1. Hence, it induces a voltage in the other inductor
having an inductance of L2. So, positive polarity of the induced voltage is
present at the dotted terminal of this inductor.
In the above circuit, the current I leaves from the dotted terminal of the
inductor having an inductance of L2. Hence, it induces a voltage in the other
inductor having an inductance of L1. So, negative polarity of the induced
voltage is present at the dotted terminal of this inductor.
Apply KVL around the loop of the above electric circuit or network.

( dIdt )+ M ( dIdt )−L 2( dIdt )+ M ( dIdt )=0

V −L 1

¿ ˃V =L1 ( ) −M ( )+ L2 ( ) −M ( )
dI dI dI dI
dt dt dt dt

¿ ˃V =L1 ( ) −2 M ( ) + L 2 ( )
dI dI dI
dt dt dt

¿ ˃ Leq ( )=L 1 ( )−2 M ( )+ L2 ( )

dI dI dI dI
dt dt dt dt

The above equation is in the form of V =Leq ( )

dI
dt
Therefore, the equivalent inductance of series combination of inductors
shown in the above figure is
Leq=L1−2 M + L 2
In this case, the equivalent inductance has been decreased by 2M. Hence, the
above electrical circuit is an example of electrical coupling which is
of opposing type.
Magnetic Coupling

36
Magnetic coupling occurs, when there is no physical connection between two
coils (or inductors). This coupling can be of either aiding type or opposing type.
It is based on whether the current enters at the dotted terminal or leaves from
the dotted terminal.
Coupling of Aiding type
Consider the following electrical equivalent circuit of transformer. It is having
two coils and these are called as primary and secondary coils.

The currents flowing through primary and secondary coils are i 1 and
i2 respectively. In this case, these currents enter at the dotted terminal of
respective coil. Hence, the induced voltage in each coil will be having positive
polarity at the dotted terminal due to the current flowing in another coil.
Apply KVL around primary coil.
V 1−L 1 ( dIdt1 )−M ( dIdt2 )
V 1=L 1 ( ddtI 1 )+ M ( dIdt2 )--------(1)
Apply KVL around secondary coil.
V 2−L 2 ( dIdt2 )−M ( dIdt1 )
V 2=L 2 ( dIdt2 )+ M ( dIdt1 )−−−(2)
In Equation 1 and Equation 2, the self-induced voltage and mutually induced
voltage have the same polarity. Hence, the above transformer circuit is an
example of magnetic coupling, which is of aiding type.
Coupling of Opposing Type
Consider the following electrical equivalent circuit of transformer.

37
The currents flowing through primary and secondary coils are i 1 and
i2 respectively. In this case, the current, i1 enters at the dotted terminal of
primary coil. Hence, it induces a voltage in secondary coil. So, positive
polarity of the induced voltage is present at the dotted terminal of this
secondary coil.
In the above circuit, the current, i2 leaves from the dotted terminal of
secondary coil. Hence, it induces a voltage in primary coil. So, negative
polarity of the induced voltage is present at the dotted terminal of this primary
coil.
Apply KVL around primary coil.
V 1−L 1
dI 1
dt
+M
dt( ) ( )
dI 2

V 1=L 1 ( dIdt1 )−M ( dIdt2 )--------(3)

Apply KVL around secondary coil.

V 2−L 2 ( dIdt2 )+ M ( dIdt1 )

V 2=L 2 ( dIdt2 )−M ( dIdt1 )−−−( 4)
In Equation 3 and Equation 4, self-induced voltage and mutually induced
voltage are having opposite polarity. Hence, the above transformer circuit is an
example of magnetic coupling, which is of opposing type.
It can be concluded that the mutually induced voltage is positive when
currents i1 and i2 both enter (or leave) the windings by the dotted terminals. If
the current in one winding enters at the dot-marked terminals and the current
in the other winding leaves at the dot-marked terminal, the voltages due to self
and mutual induction in any coil have opposite signs.

38