Coastal features

Coastal features are landforms that are formed

next to the sea or lake as a result of a number of
Coastal areas are activities such as wave erosion. There are many
naturally dynamic, as features along the coastal areas, but the following
they are constantly sections will briefly outline a few that are more
shaped by natural forces. common:
Graced by some of the
world's most spectacular
features, they capture Headlands, promontories and capes
the interest of millions
A headland is a piece of land jutting out into the
of people. In fact coastal
sea from the mainland, usually with steep high
areas are the home for the
cliffs (see Figure 38 below). Long, narrow and
majority of the world's high headlands are called promontories. A
population. However, headland or promontory of large size extending
human activities along
into a body of water, usually the sea is called a
the coast often jeopardize
opportunities for coasts cape.
to fulfill their socio-
economic and ecological
roles. Learning this
topic will help you gain
knowledge of coastal
processes and the
protective function of
coastal systems. This
knowledge will enable
you to make efforts to
manage coastal problems
and to restore coastal
capacity to accommodate
short and long-term
changes induced by Figure 39: Headland
human activities and
extreme events. In this Caves, arches, stacks and stumps
unit, you will identify A sea cave is a hollow opening in the base of a
coastal features on a sea cliff, usually at sea level, formed by waves
topographical map. acting on weak parts of the weathered rock. The
f~43~}
The area of the wetland can therefore be calculated as follows:
Number of full squares = 3
Number of half squares =12

Step 2: Change the number of half squares into full squares and then add the
total number of full squares.

To change 12 half squares into complete squares we divide 12 by 2 = 6

Total number of full squares = 3+6 = 9

Step 3: Find the area of one grid square using the scale of the map and then
multiply it by the total number of whole grid squares.

Using the scale of the map, the area of each square is 1 km2

The total area is therefore 9 x 1 km2 = 9 square kilometre

Activity ( 3
Calculating area of irregular shapes
Look at the different fields shown in Figure 68 below.

1. Which field appears to

have the greatest area?
2. Which field appears to
have the least area?
3. Which fields might be
equal in area?
4. Explain how you worked
out the area of the fields.
5. Report your work to the
class for discussion.
Scale 0 1km
LJ
Figure 68: Areas of different fields
 2002 70
2003 120
2004 130
2005 130
2006 140

Frequency tables
A frequency table is a record of how often each value (or set of values) of the
variable in question occurs. It may be enhanced by the addition of percentages
that fall into each category.
A frequency table is used to summarise categorical, nominal, and ordinal
data. It may also be used to summarise continuous data once the data set has
been divided up into sensible groups.

Example
Suppose that in a class of thirty students, the following scores were given
after a short test:
5, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 3, 2, 0, 3, 0, 3, 2, 1, 5, 1, 3, 1, 5, 5, 2, 4, 0, 0, 4, 5, 4, 4, 5, 5
The frequencies of the different scores can be summarised as:
Score Frequency Frequency (%)
0 4 13%
1 3 10%
2 5 17%
3 5 17%
4 6 20%
5 7 23%

Graphs
A graph is a visual display of amounts or data. There are different kinds of
graphs, each having special features.

Line graphs
These compare two variables, each plotted along an axis. The vertical axis
shows the values of a dependent variable and horizontal axis is always the
independent variable. The resulting points are joined with a continuous
line (as in Figure 89).
Reflecting on important issues in the topic
1. In groups of four, locate an important issue that you feel the topic has
covered.
2. Formulate a problem or question about it for another group to answer.
3. Write the problem down on a sheet of paper, and hand that piece of
paper to another group.
4. Once your group is handed a problem statement, think of a solution to
the problem. Each group has a fixed amount of time.
5. Present your problem and its solutions to the class for discussion.

mmar
Statistics involves the collection, analysis and interpretation of numerical
facts. Geographical data have variables and attributes. Data is collected
through direct observation, interviews and use of questionnaires. Data can be
analysed through quantitative approaches such as descriptive and inferential
statistics. There are two basic approaches to descriptive data analysis:
measures of central tendency (e.g. median, mean, and mode) and measures
of dispersion (e.g. range, interquartile range and standard deviation). Data
can also be analysed through qualitative approaches such as content analysis,
narrative analysis, discourse analysis, semiotics analysis, logical analysis,
domain analysis and event analysis, among others. The analysed data is
usually presented using universal illustrations such as tables, line graphs,
bar graphs, histograms, pie charts, flow diagrams, isoline maps, age-sex
pyramids, among others.

Glossary
Data: information, often in the form of facts or figures obtained from
experiments or surveys, used as a basis for making calculations or drawing
conclusions
Variable: Data whose characteristics are measurable and can be observed.
Attribute: Data whose values are not measurable but can be observed or
identified and described as present or absent.
Hawthorne effect: An effect in social research in which findings are
sun has set, so the ground receives no radiation. Cloudless skies allow the
heat of the ground to radiate into the atmosphere. Air temperatures near the
ground can fall to below 0°C.

Precipitation
The amount of precipitation in hot deserts is extremely low and unreliable
(see Figure 325); some desert areas may receive rain only once every two to
three years. However, no deserts are truly dry even though they suffer from
extreme water shortages.

40

«•
^-*•£ ft
^0* •»— •• "-»•*.
'
is*. *—•* 30
—-.
—— — — 20

10
Rainfall 0
(mm)
Temp.
320
(oC)
280

240

200

160

120

80

40

0
m THHJ
BBdy
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

Month
Teniperature range: 9°C
Ann ual total rainfall: 150 mm

Figure 325: Hot desert climate

Phiri, F. R. (2006). Senior Certificate Physical and Human Geography.
Blantyre: Dzuka Publishing Company.
Raw, M (1989). Resources and Environment. London: UNWIN Hyman Limited.
Waugh, D. (1990). Geography: An Integrated Approach. Hong Kong: Thomas
Nelson Limited.
White, R. (1998). Africa in Focus: A Physical, Human and Economic Geography.
Oxford: MacMillan education Limited.
https://pub Iichealthmatters.blog.gov.uk/category/priority3/climate-change/
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/84923 18/02/14
https://www.e-education.psu.edu/meteo469/node/167 01/01/14
http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/climate/adapt miti.htm 01/01/14
 World ffshirl
World fishing
Fishing is the activity of catching fish carried
out in a very wide range of aquatic environments
including the open seas and oceans, rivers, lakes,
swamps and man-made ponds. Fish are abundant
where food supplies are most plentiful. They feed
Fish is a significant source on very small marine organisms, collectively
of protein and income called plankton.
as an export product for
millions of people around
the world. However, Factors that influence the distribution
human population of fishing areas
growth has placed a
significant pressure a. Shallowness of water: Plenty of sunlight
on fish resources. It is is able to penetrate to the seabed in
meaningful to study this shallow water adjacent to land masses.
unit because it will enable This encourages rapid growth of plankton,
you to gain knowledge which support many fish species.
about world fishing b. Continuous deposition of nutrients:
and better influence Large quantities of nutrients from upstream
sustainable management are deposited in river mouths as the rivers
of the available fish enter lakes and seas. The nutrients support
resources. In this unit, a rich collection of plankton and fish.
you will explain the c. Meeting of cold and warm currents:
development of the The meeting of cold and warm currents
world fishing industry results in the precipitation of nutrients
and identify major that are important for the rapid growth of
fishing grounds. You will plankton, hence, attracting large shoals of
also explain the main fish.
fishing methods and the
importance of the fishing d. Upwelling of nutrient-rich cold water:
industry, and other When cold water rises from the deep ocean
resources from the sea. towards the surface, it brings with it
Finally, you will examine nutrients from sediments that accumulated
the challenges faced by on the sea floor. This also encourages the
the fishing industry and growth of plankton and multiplication of
suggest possible solutions fish near the surface.
to the challenges.
(see Figure 348). This is the only
technique that provides the largest
catches of fish.

Trawl netting
Trawl netting involves a cone-
shaped net with its mouth kept
open by otter boards, and dragged
along the sea bed by boats or
vessels known as trawlers to Figure 348: Seine Netting
catch Demersal fish (Figure 315).

Lining
This is used where the sea floor
is rugged and likely to damage
nets. The lines, which carry
hundreds of baited hooks, can
be up to two kilometres long
codend
trailed by fishing vessels (see
Figure 349below).
Figure 349: Trawl Netting

Fish traps
These are in form of skilfully weaved
baskets containing baits inside. These
traps are lowered into shallow coastal
waters and left for one or two days
before they are hauled up. Where
water moves swiftly, supporting poles
are erected to prevent the traps from
being washed away (see Figure 351). Figure 350: Lining

Figure 351: Fish trap in action

fSource:http://livingprimitivelv.com/wp-content/
fishtrapl.jpg 01/01/14)
CACM
The Central American Common Market (CACM) is an association of five
Central American nations (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua
and Costa Rica).
It was established
in 1960. However, Atlantic Ocean
due to internal
political instability
Antigua
and mounting debt
pressures in some - Dominica
1
—Barbados
member countries, - -Trinidad and Tobago
the CACM suspended Pacific Ocean
its activities in the
mid-1980s, but
later renewed them CACM
I I CARIFTA
in the 1990s. Its
headquarters are Figure 356: CACM and CARIFTA member countries
located in Guatemala.

EU
The European Union (EU) is currently a 27-member country organisation,
with its headquarters
in Brussels, Belgium.
Its member countries
include Belgium,
4
- *';• ..., Germany, France,
Denmark, Finland, Italy,
Poland, Netherlands,
Portugal, Spain,
Romania and Sweden
(Figure 357). The
UK, which had been
a member for nearly
43 years, left the EU
in 2016 with the hope
to protect jobs for
its citizens, reduce
immigration into the
UK and to preserve its
sovereignty.

Figure 357: EU member countries