DHANALAKSHMI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, CHENNAI

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE6003 CEC348 REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing and Electromagnetic radiation

UNIT – I: PART A (2 MARKS)

1. What is Remote Sensing?
Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about on object, area, or
phenomena through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with
the object, area, or phenomena under investigation.

2. What is the application of Remote Sensing?

In many respects, remote sensing can be thought of as a reading process. Using various
sensors, we remotely collect data that M/J be analyzed to obtain information about the objects,
areas, or phenomena being investigated. The remotely collected data can be of many forms,
including variations in force distributions, acoustic wave distributions, or electromagnetic
energy distributions.

3. Write the physics of Remote Sensing.

Visible light is only one of many forms of electromagnetic energy. Radio waves, heat,
ultraviolet rays, and X-rays are other familiar forms. All this energy is inherently similar and
radiates in accordance with basic wave theory. This theory describes electromagnetic energy as
traveling in harmonic, sinusoidal fashion at the “velocity of light” c. The distance from one wave peak to the
next is the wave length ψ, and the number of peaks passing a fixed point in space per unit time is the
wave frequency V.
From basic physics, wave obey the general equation C = v y

4. What are the components of Remote Sensing?

a. The energy
sources b.
Atmosphere
c. Energy-matter
interaction d. The
sensors
e. Data processing and supply
system f. Multiple data users.

5. What is Electro Magnetic Radiations?

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a self-propagating wave in space or through matter.
EM radiation
has an electric and magnetic field component which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each
other and to the direction of energy propagation.

6. What is the significance of EMR in remote sensing?

EMR stands for electromagnetic radiations. It is the energy emitted reflected from
ground features and transmitted to the sensing instrument in the form of waves. This emitted
energy/radiant energy is called electromagnetic radiation. The remote sensing of land surface
features is based on detection o f electromagnetic radiation. The water vapour. Oxygen,
ozone, Co2 etc present in the atmosphere influence EM radiation through the mechanism of
1. Scattering2.Absorption.
7. What are the types of Electromagnetic radiation?
Electromagnetic radiation is classified into types according to the frequency of the wave,
these types include (in order of increasing frequency): radio waves, microwaves, terahertz
radiation, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.

8. Draw the quantum theory interaction

A quantum theory of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter such as
electrons is described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics.

9. Explain refraction.
In refraction, a wave crossing from one medium to another of different density alters its
speed and direction upon entering the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of the
media determines the degree of refraction, and is summarized by Snell's law. Light disperses
into a visible spectrum as light is shone through a prism because of refraction.

10. Draw the Wave model.

11. Write plank‟s equation.

The frequency of the wave is proportional to the magnitude of the particle's energy.
Moreover, because photons are emitted and absorbed by charged particles, they act as
transporters of energy. The energy per photon can be calculated by Planck's equation: where E
is the energy, h is Planck's constant, and f is frequency.

12. What is black body?

By definition a black body is a material that absorbs all the radiant energy that strikes it. A
black body also radiates the maximum amount of energy, which is dependent on the kinetic
temperature.

13. Write Stefan Boltzmann law.

According to the Stefan-Boltzman law the radiant flux of a black body, Fb, at a kinetic
temperature, Tkin, is Fb = s* Tkin
4 where s is the Stefan- Boltzman constant, 5.67*10-12W*cm-2*°K-4.
14. What is emissivity?
Emissivity is a measure of the ability of a material to both radiate and absorb energy.
Materials with a high emissivity absorb and radiate large proportions of incident and kinetic
energy, respectively (and vice- versa).

15. Write Wien‟s displacement law.

Which the maximum amount of energy is radiated, which is expressed as lmax. The
sun, with a surface temperature of almost 6000°K, has its peak at 0.48mm (wavelength of
yellow). The average surface temperature of the earth is 290°K (17°C), which is also called the
ambient temperature; the peak concentration of energy emitted from the earth is at
9.7mm.This shift to longer wavelengths with decreasing temperature is described by Wien‟s
displacement law, which states: lmax = 2,897mm°K
/
Trad°
K

16. Short notes on Planck‟s law.

The primary law governing blackbody radiation is the Planck Radiation Law, which
governs the intensity of radiation emitted by unit surface area into a fixed direction (solid
angle) from the blackbody as a function of wavelength for a fixed temperature. The planck Law
can be expressed through the following equation.

17. Write short notes on Scattering.

Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact
with and
cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. How much
scattering takes place depends on several factors including the wavelength of the radiation, the
abundance of particles or gases, and the distance the radiation travels through the atmosphere.
There are three (3) types of scattering which take place.

18. What is non selective scattering?

The Non-selective scatting is independent of wavelength. It is produced by particles
whose Radii exceed 10mm such as water droplet. Non-selective scattering decrease the
contrast of the imager

19. What are the various types of scattering?

(i) Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength of
the radiation. (ii) Mie scattering
It occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of the
radiation. (iii) Non Selective Scattering
The final scattering mechanism of importance is called nonselective scattering. This occurs
when the
particles are much larger than the wavelength of the
radiation.

20. What is Atmospheric Windows?

These are certain regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which can penetrate through the
atmosphere without any significant loss of radiation. Such regions are called as atmospheric
windows. In these regions the atmospheric absorption is low, i.e the atmosphere is particularly
transmissive of energy. The region which are referred as atmospheric windows include a
window in the visible and reflected infrared region between 04 to 2.0 um
 UNIT – II: EMR Interaction with
Atmosphere and Earth Material

1. Define plat forms.

Plat forms are nothing but the Aerial photography and it is taking of photograph of the
ground from an elevated position. Plat forms are aerial photography include fixed wing aircraft,
helicopters, ballons etc.

Two types of plat forms have been used in remote sensing

Airborne
platforms
Space based plat forms

2. What is meant by change detection?

The change is usually detected by comparison between two multi-date images or sometimes
between an old map and an updated remote sensing image.

3. What are advantages of satellite platforms?

These are the satellites which have proved to be very useful in resource mapping,
meteorological and communication applications.

4. Define sensors
Sensors are remote sensing instruments designed to measure the photons. The detectors in the
sensors are charged plates made of light sensitive materials. They emit electrons when they are
subjected to beam of photons. The magnitude of the electric current produced is directly
proportional to the light intensity. The charges in the electric current be used to measure
changes in photons and the electrons are used as signals from the sensors to the ground station.
Sensors are devices used to record the reflected EMR from the objects on the earth‟s surface. These
sensors convert the radiations into electrical signals.

5. What is a passive sensor?

Passive sensors can only be used to detect energy when the naturally occurring energy is
available. For all reflected energy, this can only take place during the time when the sun is
illuminating the Earth. There is no reflected energy available from the sun at night. Energy that
is naturally emitted (such as thermal infrared) can be detected day or night, as long as the
amount of energy is large enough to be recorded.

6. What is an Active sensor?

On the other hand, provide their own energy source for illumination. The sensor emits
radiation which is directed toward the target to be investigated. The radiation reflected from
that target is detected and measured by the sensor.

7. Define with diagram of swatch and IFOV.

In a satellite system, the total width of the area on the ground covered by the scanner is
called swath or width of the total field of view(FOV).
8. Write the advantages of active sensors?
Advantages for active sensors include the ability to obtain measurements anytime, regardless
of the time of day or season. Active sensors can be used for examining wavelengths that are not
sufficiently provided by the sun, such as microwaves, or to better control the way a target
is illuminated. However, active systems require the generation of a fairly large amount of
energy to adequately illuminate targets . Some examples of active sensors are a laser
fluorosensor and synthetic aperture radar (SAR).

9. List 4 passive imaging

sensors. (a) Non imaging
-Microwave
radiometer
Magnetic
sensor
Gravimeter
-Fourier spectrometer and other
resistivity, etc.

10. Write the advantages of passive sensors?

Natural resources studies, large scale studies and remote areas
studies.

11. Compare active & passive sensors

Passive sensors can only be used to detect energy when the naturally occurring energy is
available. For all reflected energy, this can only take place during the time when the sun is
illuminating the Earth. There is no reflected energy available from the sun at night. Energy that
is naturally emitted (such as thermal infrared) can be detected day or night, as long as the
amount of energy is large enough to be recorded.
On the other hand, provide their own energy source for illumination. The sensor emits radiation
which is directed toward the target to be investigated. The radiation reflected from that target is
detected and measured by the sensor.

12. What is geocoded product

Geocoding is interpolating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street addresses or any
other spatially referenced data such as ZIP Codes, parcel lots and address locations. A
reference theme is required to geocode individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with
address ranges.
13. What are the various platform types?
The vehicle or carrier for remote sensor is borne is called the Platform.” The typical platforms are satellite and
aircraft, but they can also include radio controlled airplanes, balloons, pigeons, and kites for
low altitude remote sensing, as well as ladder and cherry pickers for ground investigation.
14. Write short notes on geostationary orbit. ?
These satellites orbit at an elevation of approximately 35790 km because that produces an
orbital period equal to the periods of rotation of the earth. The satellite appears stationary as it
is orbiting at the same rate in the same direction of the earth. These satellites provide a bigger
view of the earth, thus facilitating coverage of weather events. These satellites as they are in the
equatorial plane.

15. Write short notes on sun synchronous orbit. ?

Sun synchronous satellites are located at much lower altitudes, generally a few hundred to a few
thousand kilometre from the earth surface. The orbit in which they rotate is a special case of
polar orbits, these satellites travels from north to south pole as the earth turns below it. These
satellites pass once the same part of the earth roughly the same local time each day making
communication and collection of various forms of dat. Most of the earth resource satellites are
sun synchronous satellites.

16. Differentiate between G.O & S.S.O

These satellites orbit at an elevation of approximately 35790 km because that produces an
orbital period equal to the periods of rotation of the earth. The satellite appears stationary as it
is orbiting at the same rate in the same direction of the earth. These satellites provide a bigger
view of the earth, thus facilitating coverage of weather events. These satellites as they are in the
equatorial plane.
Sun synchronous satellites are located at much lower altitudes, generally a few hundred to a few
thousand kilometre from the earth surface. The orbit in which they rotate is a special case of
polar orbits, these satellites travels from north to south pole as the earth turns below it. These
satellites pass once the same part of the earth roughly the same local time each day making
communication and collection of various forms of dat. Most of the earth resource satellites are
sun synchronous satellites.

17. What is Resolution?

In general resolution is defined as the ability of an entire remote-sensing system, including lens
antennae, display, exposure, processing, and other factors, to render a sharply defined image.It
is the resolving power of the sensor to detect the smallest meaningful elemental area in
different spectral bands in s defined gray level at a regular interval.

18. What are the elements of Resolution?

The four elements of resolutions are Spatial, Spectral, Radiometric and
Temporal.

19. What are the various types of Resolution?

The four elements of resolutions are Spatial, Spectral, Radiometric and
Temporal.
20. Short account on spatial Resolution.
It is the minimum elemental area the sensor can detect or measure. The resolution element is
called pixel (picture element). Example: IRS LISS 1-72.5m; LISS II-36.25m Land sat MSS-
80m; Land sat TM-30m SPOT MSS HRV-120m; SPOT MSS HRV II-10m

21. Explain the term spectral Resolution

It refers to the sensing and recording power of the sensor in different bands of EMR. The
sensors can observe an object separately in different bands or colors. Examples: IRS-4 bands;
Land sat MSS-4 bands; Land sat MSS TM-7 bands SPOT-4 bands It is the ability if the sensor
to distinguish the finer variation of the reflected radiation from different objects.
 UNIT – III: Orbits and platforms

1. What is image interpretation?

Image interpretation is defined as the extraction of qualitative and quantitative information in
the form of a map, about the shape, location, structure, function, quality, condition, relationship
of and between objects, etc. by using human knowledge or experience.

2. Describe an image with its properties.

Image processing is a physical process used to convert an image signal in to a physical

image. Image processing usually refers to digital image processing, but optical and analog
image processing also are possible.

3. What is the type‟s image interpretation?

Image M/J be classified by adopting either of the following methods

1. Spectral pattern recognition

2. Spatial patter
3. Supervised classification
4. Unsupervised classification

4. What is visual image interpretation?

Visual interpretation is the act or process of examining images (satellite imageries) for the
purpose of identifying objects and assessing their significance. Visual image interpretation
involves detection, recognition, identification, classification and delineation of objects in an
aerial or a satellite image.

5. What is photo interpretation?

Photo interpretation is defined as the process of identifying objects or conditions in aerial
photographs and determining their meaning or significance.

6. What is image measurement?

Image measurement is the extraction of physical quantities, such as length, location, height,
density, temperature and so on, by using reference data or calibration data deductively or
inductively.

7. What is called photographical interpretation?

Interpretation and analysis based on aerial photographs using stereoscopic vision.

8. Differentiate supervised & unsupervised classification.

A supervised classification algorithm requires a training sample for each class i.e a
collection of data points know to have come from the class of interest. The classification is
based on how near a point to be classified is to the training data set. Unsupervised classification
algorithms do no compare points to be classified with training data. The unsupervised
algorithms examine a large number of unknown data vectors and divide them into classes
based on properties inherent to the data themselves. Thus the classes are separated from the
differences observed within the data.
9. What is image analysis?
Image analysis is the understanding of the relationship between interpreted information and
the actual status or phenomenon, and to evaluate the situation.

10. What is thematic map?

Extracted information will be finally represented in a map form called an interpretation map
or a thematic map.

11. What is Interpretation map?

Extracted information will be finally represented in a map form called an interpretation map
or a thematic map.

12. What are the image interpretation elements?

The eight elements of image interpretation are shape, size, tone, shadows, texture, site,
pattern and association.

13. What is image processing?

Image processing is a physical process used to convert an image signal in to a physical
image. Image processing usually refers to digital image processing, but optical and analog
image processing also are possible.

14. Define digital image processing

Digital Image Processing is a collection of techniques for the manipulation of digital images
by computers. The raw data received from the imaging sensors on the satellite platforms
contains flaws and deficiencies. To overcome these flaws and deficiencies in order to get the
originality of the data, it needs to underg o several steps of processing. This will vary from
image to image depending on the type of image format, initial condition of the image and the
information of interest and the composition of the image scene.

15. List the steps of image processing

The three steps of image processing are ,
• Pre-
processing
• Display and enhancement
• Information extraction

16. Write short notes on image enhancement.

The operations are carried out to improve the interpretability of the image by increasing
apparent contrast among various features in the scene. The enhancement techniques depend
upon two factors mainly l The digital data (i.e. with spectral bands and resolution)

17. Define pre processing

In the preprocessing ,prepare data for subsequent analysis that attempts to correct or
compensate for systematic errors.

18. Explain the term display

The presentation of analyzed data using remote sensing. It M/J be in digital, 3D, 2D display,
diagrammatic and documented.
19. Write the objectives of interpretation
 The objectives of interpretation as an image enhancement technique often drastically alters
the original numeric data, it is normally used only for visual (manual) interpretation and
not for further numeric analysis. Common enhancements include image reduction, image
rectification, image magnification, transect extraction, contrast adjustments, band ratioing,
spatial filtering, Fourier transformations, principal component analysis and texture
transformation.

20. What is digital image?

Digital Image is the matrix of “Digital Numbers”. A digital image is composed of thousands of pixels.
Each pixel represents the brightness of small region on the earth surface.Digital Image
processing involves the manipulation and interpretation of digital image with the aid of
computer.

21. Define filtering

Filtering means the smoothening of an image using different Masks
or Kernels.

22. What is spatial filtering? (N/D- 13)

Spatial Filtering can be described as selectively emphasizing or suppressing information at different spatial
scales over an image. “ Spatial operation consists in changing the values of each pixels according to the values of
the pixels in the neighborhoods.

23. What is convolution?

A convolution is an integral which expresses the amount of overlap of one function g as it is
shifted over another function f. “

24. List the image enhancement techniques

Contrast
manipulation
Spatial feature manipulation
and
Multistage
manipulation.

25. What is multi spectral image classification?

Supervised Classification
techniques & Unsupervised
Classification.

26. Define visual interpellation keys

Visual interpretation is the act or process of examining images (satellite imageries) for the
purpose of identifying objects and assessing their significance. Visual image interpretation
involves detection, recognition, identification, classification and delineation of objects in an
aerial or a satellite image.

27. What is image interpretation strategy?

Image processing is a physical process used to convert an image signal in to a physical
image. Image processing usually refers to digital image processing, but optical and analog
image processing also are possible.
 UNIT – 4:SENSING TECHNIQUES

1. Define the term map

A map is usually considered to be a drawing to scale of the whole or a part of the surface of
the earth on a plane surface; it is a manually or mechanically drawn picture of the earth
showing the location and distribution of various natural and cultural phenomena. A map is a
symbolic representation of an area.

2. What are constraint maps?

Constraint maps are binary maps in which the areas are suitable for a study are assigned the
value of 1 and the areas. Which are not suitable are assigned the value of O. these maps are
useful in identifying and eliminating the unsuitable areas in a study / analysis.

3. List the various types of map

The two maps are topographical and thematic maps.

4. Define topographical map

It is a reference tool, showing the outlines of selected natural and man-made features of
the Earth – often acts as a frame for other information
"Topography" refers to the shape of the surface, represented by contours and/or shading, but
topographic maps also show roads and other prominent features.

5. What is thematic map?

It is a tool to communicate geographical themes such as, the distribution of population &
densities, climatic variables and land use etc.

6. Define Map overlay

Map overlay is the process by which it is possible to take two or more different htematic
map layers of the same area and overlay then on top of the other and forma compositive new
layer this technique is used to overlay vector data on a raster image. In vector based systems
map overlay is time consuming, complex and computationally expensive. In raster based system
it is quick. Straightforward and efficient.

7. What is chloropleth map?

A choropleth map contains differentiated zones. The different zones are used to
represent the different classes present in the theme. For example theme: census tracts class:
average income, percentage female populations, mortality rate etc

8. Explain about area class map

A area class map is one of the thematic type map and It is a tool to communicate
geographical themes such as, the distribution of population & densities, climatic variables and
land use about an area.

9. Define Isopleth map

An isopleths map is a map, which contains imaginary lines used to connect points of equal
values. (isolines). They M/J be contours in the case of a topographic map. Similarly maps can
be drawn for variables such as temperatures, pressure, rainfall and population density
10. What are the various characteristic of map
maps are often stylized, generalized or abstracted, requiring careful interpretation
• usually out of date
• show only a static situation - one slice in time
• often highly elegant/artistic
• easy to use to answer certain types of questions:
– how do I get there from here?
– what is at this point?
• difficult or time-consuming to answer other types:
– what is the area of this lake?
– what places can I see from this TV tower?
– what does that thematic map show at the point I'm interested in on this topographic map?

11. What is the necessity of map projection?

Projection is necessary one because spatial entities locate in two dimensions. The method
by which the “world is laid flat” is use to help projection. Doing the process introduce error into spatial data.
Spatial data character varies depending on the projection method chosen. Shape and distance are
distorted the accuracy world is spherical shape visualize the two dimension in flat surface is
difficult.

12. List the various types of map projection

1.Cylindrical projection 2. Azimuthal projection 3. Conical projection

13. What is cylindrical projection?

Countries near the equator in true relative portion. Distance increases between countries
located towards top and bottom of mage. The view of the poles is very distorted. Area for the
most part is preserved

14. What is Azimuthal projection?

Only a part of the earth surface is visible. The view will be of half the globe or less.
Distortion will occur at all four edges. Distance for the more part is preserved.

15. What is Conical projection?

Area is distorted. Distance is very distorted towards the bottom of
the image. Scale for the most part is preserved

16. Write an short notes on attribute data analysis.

It is of more conventional type it contains data describing characteristics or qualities of the
spatial features. i.e descriptive information. For Example, Number of beds in the hospital, Type
of road etc

17. Define referencing system

Referencing system is used to locate a feature on the earth‟s surface or a two dimension
representation of this surface such as a map.

18. List the methods of spatial referencing system

Several methods of spatial referencing exist all of which can be grouped into three
categories. Geographical co-ordinate system
Rectangular co-ordinate system Non-co-ordinate system
 19. What is Geographical co-ordinate system
This is a one of true co-ordinate system .the location of any point on the earth surface can be
defined by a reference using latitude and longitude.

20. What is Rectangular co-ordinate system?

Although the use of rectangular coordinates in such geometric applications as surveying and
planning has been practiced since ancient times, it was not until the 17th century that geometry
and algebra were joined to form the branch of mathematics called analytic geometry. French
mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650) devised a simple plan whereby two
number lines were intersected at right angles with the position of a point in a plane determined
by its distance from each of the lines. This system is called the rectangular coordinate system
(or Cartesian coordinate system).

21. What is QTM?

(N/D- 12) The quaternary triangular mesh refrenshing system tries to deal with irregularities
in the earth surface.

22. What is GIS?

It‟s a computer based information system primarily aims in collecting, classifying,

crosschecking, manipulating, interpreting, retrieving and displaying data which are spatially referred
to the earth in an appealing way.

23. What are the components of GIS?

i)The Computer System (Hardware and Operating System)
ii) The
Software iii)
Spatial Data
iv) Data Management and analysis
procedures v) The People to operate the
GIS

24. What are the hardware components of a GIS

Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide
range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in
stand-alone or networked configurations.

25. What are the software components of a GIS?

Standard GIS
Software‟s
•
ARCGIS
• ARCVIEW
• ARCINFO
• MAPINFO
• ERDAS
• ENVI
• AUTOCADMAP
• IDRISI
 UNIT – 5: DATA PRODUCTS AND INTERPRETATION

1.What is data model?

Data Models: Vector and Raster Spatial data in GIS has two primary data formats: raster
and vector. Raster uses a grid cell structure, whereas vector is more like a drawn map. Raster and
Vector Data Vector format has points, lines, polygons that appear normal, much like a map. Raster
format generalizes the scene into a grid of cells, each with a code to indicate the feature being
depicted. The cell is the minimum mapping unit. Raster has generalized reality: all of the features in
the cell area are reduced to a single cell identity.

2. What is vector data?

Vector data uses two dimensional Cartesian coordinates to store the shape of spatial
entity. Vector based features are treated as discrete geometric objects over the space. In the vector
data base point is the basic building block from which all the spatial entities are constructed. The
vector spatial entity, the point is represented by a single x,y coordinate pair. Line and area entities
are constructed by a series of points into chains

3. Define Raster data

Raster is a method for the storage, processing and display of spatial data. Each area is
divided into rows and columns, which form a regular grid structure. Each cell must be rectangular
in shape, but not necessarily square. Each cell within this matrix contains location co-ordinates as
well as an attribute value. The origin of rows and column is at the upper left corner of the grid. Rows function as
the “y”coordinate and column as”x”coordinate in a two dimensional system. A cell is defined by its location in terms of
rows and columns.

4. Why is compression needed for remote sensing data?

Data compression method provides compact raster representation using a variable sized
grid. Large cells are used in areas of low detail while small cells are used in areas of high detail

5. What is Vectorization?
Vectors are data elements describing position and direction. In GIS, vector is the maplike
drawing of features, without the generalizing effect of a raster grid. Therefore, shape is better
retained. Vector is much more spatially accurate than the raster format.

6. What is raster coding?

In the data entry process, maps can be digitized or scanned at a selected cell size and each
cell assigned a code or value. The cell size can be adjusted according to the grid structure or by
ground units, also termed resolution. There are three basic and one advanced scheme for assigning
cell codes. Presence/Absence: is the most basic method and to record a feature if some of it occurs
in the cell space.

7. Compare vector & raster data

structure
Vectors are data elements describing position and direction. In GIS, vector is the maplike
drawing of features, without the generalizing effect of a raster grid. Therefore, shape is better
retained. Vector is much more spatially accurate than the raster format.
In the data entry process, maps can be digitized or scanned at a selected cell size and each cell a
ssigned a code or value. The cell size can be adjusted according to the grid structure or by ground
space.
8. What do you understand about data compression
Data compression method provides compact raster representation using a variable sized
grid. Large cells are used in areas of low detail while small cells are used in areas of high detail

9. What is buffering?
Buffering is the creation of polygons that surround other points, lines or polygons. Buffers
M/J be created either to exclude a certain amount of area around a point, line or polygon or to
include only the buffer area in a study

10. What is cell center?

The cell center involves reading only the center of the cell and assigning the code
accordingly. Not good for points or lines.

11. Define dominant area

To assign the cell code to the feature with the largest (dominant) share of the cell. This is
suitable primarily for polygons.

12. Define percent coverage

A more advanced method in Geographical information system. It is used to separate each
feature for coding into individual themes and then assign values that show its percent cover in each
cell.

13. What is reclassification?

Reclassification is an important variation of the query idea in GID and is used in place of a
query in raster GIS. In Raster GIS, the methods of reclassification can be used in place of query to
obtain information under search from a GIS database.

14. Differentiate GIS from an information system & CAD software

GIS IS and CAD software

GIS has the capabilities of analysis of IS and CAD software do not have the capabilities of ha
spatial data spatial data
Complex analysis of multiple spatial data It is not possible to use spatial data
and non spatial data in the integrated therefore obviously complex analysis
manner is possible. involving spatial data together is not possible
GIS M/J be raster based vector CAD software is compatible only with vector data structu
based or recently advanced hybrid GIS is also avail an IS and CAD software raster
data structure can not be used.

15. What are the different input methods into a

GIS?
The different methods of input into a GIS are

Key board entry

O.C.R.
Digitizi
ng
Manual digitizing, Automatic
digitizing Scanning, Automatic
line follower Electronic data
transfer
16. Define hybrid GIS
Here in a hybrid GIS, it is easy and possible to use both the vector and raster data structures and
also to convert from one data structures to another. The Hybrid GIS combines the advantages of
both the raster and Vector data structures.

17. Write short notes on digitizing

The process of convert the data from maps and other documents in to digital form. The digital
form
M/J be vector or raster data. A digitizer is used to convert the data from maps into digital form.
Manual digitizing
Automatic digitizing

18. List the various errors in digitizing

Scale and resolution of the source/base
map. Quality of the equipment and the
software used. Incorrect registration.
A shaky hand. Line
thickness. Overshoot.
Under shoot.
Spike.
Displacement.
Polygonal knot.
Psychological
errors.

19. What are the different types of grid based models?

The Grid based models can be broadly classified as
1. Weighted Summation
` 2. models
Weighted mean model
3. Unique combination
model
20. What is scanning?
A piece of hard ware for converting an analogue source of document into digital raster format (a
light sensitive device).Most commonly used method. When raster data are there to be encoded
scanning is the most appropriate option.
There are three different types of scanners available in
usage :- Flat-bed scanners (a PC peripheral).
Rotating drum scanners.
Large format feed
scanners

21. What are the output methods / components of GIS?

Plotter, Printer, VDU, Tape Drive

22. Write the component of scanner

A lighsource.
A back ground.
A lens.