Basic Electronics

Engineering
Laboratory Manual

B.Tech I Year – II Sem R24

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 J B Institute of Engineering & Technology
B. Tech- Electronics & Communication Engineering

INSTITUTION VISION
To be a centre of excellence in engineering and management education, research
and application of knowledge to benefit society with blend of ethical values and
global perception.

INSTITUTION MISSION
1. To provide world class engineering education, encourage research and
development.
2. To evolve innovative applications of technology and develop entrepreneurship.
3. To mould the students into socially responsible and capable leaders.

DEPARTMENT VISION

To be a guiding force enabling multifarious applications in Electronics and

Communications Engineering, promote innovative research in the latest
technologies to meet societal needs.

DEPARTMENT MISSION
1. To provide and strengthen core competencies among the students through
expert training and industry interaction.
2. To promote advanced designing and modeling skills to sustain technical
development and lifelong learning in ECE.

3. To promote social responsibility and ethical values, within and outside the
department.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

1. Practice Technical skills widely in industrial, societal and real time

applications.
2. Engage in the pursuit of higher education, delve into extensive research and
development endeavours, and explore creative and innovative ventures in the
domains of science, engineering, technology.
3. Exhibit professional ethics and moral values and capability of working with
professional skills to contribute towards the need of industry and society.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs) & PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PO Description
PO1 Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
PO2 Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
Design / development of Solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
PO3
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the
public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge
PO4
and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to
complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
The engineer and Society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate
the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work,
as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological Change

Program Specific Outcomes

Carry out the Analysis and Design different Analog & Digital circuits with given
specifications.

PSO2 Construct and test different communication systems for various applications.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

AY: 2024-25 J. B. Institute of Engineering and Technology B. Tech EEE
Onwards (UGC Autonomous) I Year-I Sem
Course Basic Electronics Engineering Lab
L T P D
Code: L1121 (Common to AIML, ECE & EEE)
Credits: 2 0 0 4 0

Pre-Requisites:

List of Experiments
1. PN Junction diode characteristics A) Forward bias B) Reverse bias.
2. Study of Rectifier characteristics with & without filters
3. Types of Clippers at different reference voltages
4. Types of Clampers at different reference voltages
5. Input and output characteristics of BJT in CB Configuration
6. Input and output characteristics of BJT in CE Configuration
7. Input and output characteristics of MOS FET in CS Configuration
8. Input and output characteristics of MOS FET in CD Configuration
9. Switching characteristics of a transistor
10. Zener diode characteristics and Zener as voltage Regulator
11. SCR Characteristics.
12. UJT Characteristics and identify negative region
13. Photo diode characteristics
14. Solar cell characteristics
15. LED Characteristics

Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

1. Acquire the knowledge of various semiconductor devices and their use in real life.
2. Design aspects of biasing and keep them in active region of the device for functional
circuits
3. Acquire the knowledge about the role of special purpose devices and their applications.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 List of Electronic Experiments

1. PN Junction diode characteristics A) Forward bias B) Reverse bias.

2. Study of Rectifier characteristics with & without filters
3. Types of Clippers at different reference voltages
4. Types of Clampers at different reference voltages
5. Input and output characteristics of BJT in CB Configuration
6. Input and output characteristics of BJT in CE Configuration
7. Input and output characteristics of MOS FET in CS Configuration
8. Input and output characteristics of MOS FET in CD Configuration
9. Switching characteristics of a transistor
10. Zener diode characteristics and Zener as voltage Regulator
11. SCR Characteristics.
12. UJT Characteristics and identify negative region
13. Photo diode characteristics
14. Solar cell characteristics
15. LED Characteristics

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Basics of BEE Laboratory
and Electronic Symbols
symbols and electronic circuit symbols are used for drawing schematic diagram. The
symbols represent and electronic components.

Table of and Electronic Symbols:

Symbol Component name Meaning

Wire Symbols

Wire Conductor of current

Connected Wires Connected crossing

Not connected Wires Wires are not connected

Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols

SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open

SPDT Toggle Switch Selects between two connections

Pushbutton Switch (N.O) Momentary switch - normally open

Pushbutton Switch (N.C) Momentary switch - normally closed

DIP switch is used for onboard

DIP Switch configuration

SPST Relay Relay open / close connection by an

electromagnet
SPDT Relay

Jumper Close connection by jumper insertion on

pins.

Solder Bridge Solder to close connection

Ground Symbols

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Used for zero potential reference and
Earth Ground
shock protection.

Chassis Ground Connected to the chassis of the circuit

Digital / Common Ground

Resistor Symbols

Resistor (IEEE)
Resistor reduces the current flow.
Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.
Potentiometer (IEC)

Variable Resistor /
Rheostat(IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals.
Variable Resistor /
Rheostat(IEC)

Capacitor Symbols

Capacitor
Capacitor is used to store electric
charge. It acts as short circuit with
Capacitor AC and open circuit with DC.

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Variable Capacitor Adjustable capacitance

Inductor / Coil Symbols

Inductor Coil / solenoid that generates magnetic field

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Iron Core Inductor Includes iron

Variable Inductor

Power Supply Symbols

Voltage Source Generates constant voltage

Current Source Generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source AC voltage source

voltage is generated by mechanical rotation

Generator
of the generator

Battery Cell Generates constant voltage

Battery Generates constant voltage

Generates voltage as a function of voltage or

Controlled Voltage Source
current of other circuit element.

Generates current as a function of voltage or

Controlled Current Source
current of other circuit element.
Meter Symbols

Measures voltage. Has very high resistance.

Voltmeter
Connected in parallel.

Measures electric current. Has near zero

Ammeter
resistance. Connected serially.

Ohmmeter Measures resistance

Wattmeter Measures electric power

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols

Lamp / light bulb

Lamp / light bulb Generates light when current flows through

Lamp / light bulb

Diode / LED Symbols

Diode allows current flow in one direction

Diode
only (left to right).

Allows current flow in one direction, but also

Zener Diode
can flow in the reverse direction when above
breakdown voltage

Schottky Diode Schottky diode is a diode with low voltage

drop

Varactor / Varicap Diode Variable capacitance diode

Tunnel Diode

Light Emitting Diode (LED) LED emits light when current flows through

Photodiode Photodiode allows current flow when exposed

to light
Transistor Symbols

NPN Bipolar Transistor Allows current flow when high potential at

base (middle)

PNP Bipolar Transistor Allows current flow when low potential at

base (middle)
Made from 2 bipolar transistors. Has total
Darlington Transistor
gain of the product of each gain.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 JFET-N Transistor N-channel field effect transistor

JFET-P Transistor P-channel field effect transistor

NMOS Transistor N-channel MOSFET transistor

PMOS Transistor P-channel MOSFET transistor

Misc. Symbols

Motor Electric motor

Transformer Change AC voltage from high to low or low

to high.

Electric bell Rings when activated

Buzzer Produce buzzing sound

Fuse
The fuse disconnects when current above
threshold. Used to protect circuit from high
Fuse currents.

Bus

Bus Contains several wires. Usually for data /

address.
Bus

Optocoupler / Opto-isolator Optocoupler isolates onnection to other board

Loudspeaker Converts signal to sound waves

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Microphone Converts sound waves to signal

Operational Amplifier Amplify input signal

Schmitt Trigger Operates with hysteresis to reduce noise.

Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) Converts analog signal to digital numbers

Digital-to-Analog converter (DAC) Converts digital numbers to analog signal

Crystal Oscillator Used to generate precise frequency clock

signal
Antenna Symbols

Antenna / aerial
Transmits & receives radio waves
Antenna / aerial

Dipole Antenna Two wires simple antenna

Logic Gates Symbols

NOT Gate (Inverter) Outputs 1 when input is 0

AND Gate Outputs 1 when both inputs are 1.

NAND Gate Outputs 0 when both inputs are 1. (NOT +

AND)

OR Gate Outputs 1 when any input is 1.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 NOR Gate Outputs 0 when any input is 1. (NOT + OR)

XOR Gate Outputs 1 when inputs are different.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 D Flip-Flop Stores one bit of data

Multiplexer / Mux 2 to 1
Connects the output to selected input line.
Multiplexer / Mux 4 to 1

Demultiplexer / Demux 1 to 4 Connects selected output to the input line.

THE OSCILLOSCOPE

Introduction
The oscilloscope is a universal measuring instrument with applications
in physics, biology, chemistry, medicine, and many other scientific and
technological areas. It is used to give a visual representation of voltages. Thus,
any quantity which can be converted to a voltage can be displayed on an
oscilloscope. Although the oscilloscope looks very complicated, once you
familiarize yourself with its controls and functions, it is surprisingly easy to
use. The purpose of this experiment is to develop familiarity with the oscilloscope
and with the types of measurements that can be made with it.

How the Oscilloscope Works

The most important component of the oscilloscope is the cathode ray tube
(CRT), a vacuum tube in which a filament is heated to “boil off” electrons which are
then focused into a beam and “shot” toward the screen with an electron gun. In the

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

photograph above, screen is the rectangular, gridded area on the left of the
oscilloscope.
The screen is coated with fluorescent material which glows when it is hit by
the electron beam. On its way to the screen, the beam passes between two sets of
deflection plates (horizontal and vertical) and a voltage applied to these plates will
cause the beam to curve. The sketch illustrates the CRT components with a negative
voltage applied only to the vertical plates (Vy), causing the beam to bend downward.
The amount of deflection d shown on the screen is proportional to the voltage applied
to the plates, so you can measure a voltage by seeing where the beam hits the
screen.
BREADBOARD

A breadboard is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. The term is

commonly used to refer to solderless breadboard. Because the solderless
breadboard does not require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to use for
creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with circuit design. Older
breadboard types did not have this property. A stripboard (veroboard) and similar
prototyping printed, which are used to build permanent soldered prototypes or one-
offs, cannot easily be reused. A variety of electronic systems may be prototyped by
using breadboards, from small analog and digital circuits to complete central
processing units (CPUs).

Bus and terminal strips

Solderless breadboards are available from several different manufacturers, but most
share a similar layout. The layout of a typical solderless breadboard is made up
from two types of areas, called strips. Strips consist of interconnected terminals.

Bus strips:
Usually Bus strips to provide power to the electronic components. A bus strip
usually contains two columns: one for ground and one for a supply voltage.
However, some breadboards only provide a single-column power distributions bus
strip on each long side. Typically the column intended for a supply voltage is
marked in red, while the column for ground is marked in blue or black. Some
manufacturers connect all terminals in a column. Others just connect groups of, for
example, 25 consecutive terminals in a column. The latter design provides a circuit
designer with some more control over crosstalk (inductively coupled noise) on the
power supply bus. Often the groups in a bus strip are indicated by gaps in the color
marking. Bus strips typically run down one or both sides of a terminal strip or
between terminal strips. On large breadboards additional bus strips can often be
found on the top and bottom of terminal strips.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

Terminal strips
Terminal strips are the main areas, to hold most of the electronic components. In
the middle of a terminal strip of a breadboard, one typically finds a notch running
in parallel to the long side. The notch is to mark the centerline of the terminal strip
and provides limited airflow (cooling) to DIP ICs straddling the centerline. The clips
on the right and left of the notch are each connected in a radial way; typically
five clips (i.e., beneath five holes) in a row on each side of the notch are ly
connected. The five clip columns on the left of the notch are often marked as A, B,
C, D, and E, while the ones on the right are marked F, G, H, I and J. When a
"skinny" Dual In-line Pin package (DIP) integrated circuit (such as a typical DIP-
14 or DIP-16, which have a 0.3 inch separation between the pin rows) is plugged
into a breadboard, the pins of one side of the chip are supposed to go into column
E while the pins of the other side go into column F on the other side of the notch.
Some manufacturers provide separate bus and terminal strips. Others just provide
breadboard blocks which contain both in one block. Often breadboard strips or
blocks of one brand can be clipped together to make a larger breadboard. In a more
robust variant, one or more breadboard strips are mounted on a sheet of metal.
Typically, that backing sheet also holds a number of binding posts. These posts
provide a clean way to connect an external power supply. This type of breadboard
may be slightly easier to handle. Several images in this article show such solderless
breadboards.

Figure:1 Example breadboard drawing. Two bus strips and one terminal strip in one
block. 25 consecutive terminals in a bus strip connected (indicated by gaps in the
red and blue lines). Four binding posts depicted at the left.
A "full size" terminal breadboard strip typically consists of around 56 to 65 rows of
connectors, each row containing the above mentioned two sets of connected clips (A
to E and F to J). Together with bus strips on each side this makes up a typical 784
to 910 tie point solderless breadboard. "Small size" strips typically come with
around 30 rows. Miniature solderless breadboards as small as 17 rows (no bus
strips, 170 tie points) can be found, but these are less well suited for practical use.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

COLOR BANDS

To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.
band A is first significant figure of component value (left side)
band B is the second significant figure
band C is the decimal multiplier
band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)
For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit
4 (yellow in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700
ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is ±5%, so the real resistance could lie
anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms.
The standard color code:
Temp.
Color Significant figures Multiplier Tolerance
Coefficient (ppm/K)
Black 0 ×100 – 250 U
Brown 1 ×101 ±1% F 100 S
Red 2 ×102 ±2% G 50 R
Orange 3 ×103 – 15 P
Yellow 4 ×104 (±5%) – 25 Q
Green 5 ×105 ±0.5% D 20 Z
Blue 6 ×106 ±0.25% C 10 Z
Violet 7 ×107 ±0.1% B 5 M
±0.05%
Gray 8 ×108 A 1 K
(±10%)
White 9 ×109 – –
Gold – ×10-1 ±5% J –
Silver – ×10-2 ±10% K –
None – – ±20% M –

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 1. Characteristics of PN Junction Diode
Aim: To draw the Voltage-current characteristics of PN junction diode under
forward and reverse bias condition and to determine cut in voltage, reverse
saturation current and forward dynamic resistance.

Apparatus Required:
NAME RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
REGULATED POWER 1
0 -15 V
SUPPLY (RPS)
0 -20 mA 1
AMMETER
0 -200 µA
VOLTMETER 0 – 20 V 1
DIODE 1N4007 1
100Ω 1
RESISTORS
1KΩ 1
BREAD BOARD 1
CONNECTING WIRES

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
Forward bias

Reverse bias

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Model Waveform

Theory:

The figure shows the physical and schematic circuit symbol of the diode.
The band on the diode and the bar on the left of the circuit symbol represent
the cathode (n-type material) and must be noted. The p-type material (the
anode) in the diode is located to the right. The circuit symbol of the diode is an
arrow showing forward bias, when the p-side is positive with respect to the n-
side, and the direction of the arrow represents the direction of large current
flow.
A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I
characteristics of the diode are curve between voltage across the diode and
current through the diode. When external voltage is zero, circuit is open and
the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit
current is zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and n- type
(cathode) is connected to –ve terminal of the supply voltage, is known as
forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when diode is in the forward
biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit.
The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing
forward voltage.
When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode)
is connected –ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and
the potential barrier across the junction increases. Therefore, the junction
resistance becomes very high and a very small current (reverse saturation
current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse
bias current due to minority charge carriers.
Procedure:-
Forward bias
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For forward bias, the DC power supply +ve terminal is connected to the anode
of the diode and –ve terminal is connected to the cathode of the diode using
1N4007.
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage gradually in Steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode (in mA) and
voltage across the diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage and current.
7. From the graph calculate cut-in voltage, Static resistance and Dynamic
resistances.

Reverse bias
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For reverse bias, the DC power supply +ve terminal is connected to the
cathode of the diode and – ve terminal is connected to the anode of the diode
using 1N4007.
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage gradually in Steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode (in µA) and
voltage across the diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage and current.
7. From the graph calculate Breakdown voltage.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

Observation
Foreward Bias Reverse Bias
Sl NO Applied Voltage Current Sl NO Applied Voltage Current
voltage across IF (mA) voltage across IR (mA)
(V) diode(V) (V) diode(V)
1 1
2 2
3 3
. .
. .
. .
. .
30 30

Calculations
From the graph at a given operating point we can determine the static
resistance (Rd) and dynamic resistance (rd).

The static resistance (Rd) is defined as (Rd) =

The Dynamic resistance (Rd) is defined as (r)=

Precautions:-
1. All the connections should be correct.
2. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may
lead to damage of the diode.
3. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit
diagram.
4. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit
connections as per the circuit diagram.
5. Parallax error should be avoided while taking the readings from the (if) Analog
meters.

RESULT:-

Forward and Reverse Bias characteristics for a p-n diode is observed.

VIVA QESTIONS:-
1. Define depletion region of a diode?
2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?
3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes?
5. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?
BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology
 7. What is the diode equation?
8. What is PIV?
9. What is the break down voltage?
10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 2.a Half wave Rectifier
Aim:
1. To observe the input and output waveforms of the Half-wave rectifier on CRO
with and without filter.

2. To find load regulation and ripple factor of a half-wave rectifier both with and
without filter.

Apparatus Required:

Name Range Type Quantity

Step down Transformer 230 V / 12-0-12 1
Diode 1N4007 1
Capacitors 2 .2 µF 1
100 µF 1
Resistors 100 Ω 1
1KΩ 1
2.2 KΩ 1
5.8 KΩ 1
10 KΩ 1
1 MΩ 1
Breadboard 1
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 0 – 20 MHZ Duel channel 1
Digital multimeter 1
Connecting probes SUFFICIENT
Connecting wires SUFFICIENT

Circuit Diagram:

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

Theory:
During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and
conducts through the load resistor R1. Hence the current produces an output
voltage across the load resistor R1, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle
of the input voltage. During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is
reverse biased and there is no current through the circuit. i.e, the voltage across R1
is zero. The net result is that only the +ve half cycle of the input voltage appears
across the load. The average value of the half wave rectified o/p voltage is the value
measured on dc voltmeter. For practical circuits, transformer coupling is usually
provided for two reasons.
1. The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down, as needed.

2. The ac source is ly isolated from the rectifier. Thus preventing shock hazards
in the secondary circuit.

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary
side to the rectifier input.
3. By the multimeter, measure the, ac and dc voltage at the output of the
rectifier with 100Ω load resistor VAC(RMS) and VDC respectively.
4. From the CRO output, calculate Vm.
5. Repeat the above step by using different load resistors i.e. with 1 KΩ, 2.2 KΩ,
5.8 KΩ and 10 KΩ.
6. For each reading calculate the ripple factor and percentage regulation.
(Calculate percentage regulation using 1 MΩ resistor as no load.)
7. Repeat the above steps (3, 4, 5 and 6) by using 2.2 μF capacitor filter.
8. Repeat the above steps (3, 4, 5 and 6) by using 100 μF capacitor filter.
9. Plot the graphs for AC input I-Phase signal, output of rectifier without filter
and output of rectifier with filter by considering 1 KΩ resistor as load.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Expected Waveforms:

Ob
ser
vat
ion
s

O
bs
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
n

for

wi
t
hout filter with varying load resistance:

S. No. Load Vdc Vac(rms) Ripple %

Resistor Vm Vm Vm factor(γ) Regulation
= π =

√
2

Observation for with filter c= 2.2 μF with varying load resistance:

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 S. No. Load Vdc Vac(rms) Ripple %
Resistor Vm Vm factor(γ) Regulation
= π = Vm
√2

Observation for with filter c= 100 μF with varying load resistance:

S. No. Load Vdc Vac(rms) Ripple %

Resistor Vm Vm Vm factor(γ) Regulation
= π =
√2

CALCULATIONS:
Theoretical Calculations:-
Without Filter:-

Vrms=Vm/ √2 =

Vdc=Vm/ π =

√ )
2
Vrms
Ripple factor – 1 =1.21
γ= Vdc

With Filter:-

Ripple factor, γ= (
1
2√3 f C
Where R f =50Hz, C =100μF, R=1KΩ.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Practical calculations:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor with out Filter = Vac / Vdc =
Ripple factor with Filter = Vac / Vdc =
VNL − V FL
% Regulation = × 100
V
FL

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The primary and secondary sides of the transformer should be carefully
identified.
2. The polarities of the diode should be carefully identified.
3. While determining the % regulation, first Full load should be applied and then
it should be decremented in steps.

RESULT:
1. The Ripple factor for the Half-Wave Rectifier with and without filters is
measured.
2. The % regulation of the Half-Wave rectifier is calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the PIV of Half wave rectifier?
2. What is the efficiency of half wave rectifier?
3. What is the rectifier?
4. What is the difference between the half wave rectifier and full wave
Rectifier?
5. What is the o/p frequency of Bridge Rectifier?
6. What are the ripples?
7. What is the function of the filters?
8. What is TUF?
9. What is the average value of o/p voltage for HWR?
10. What is the peak factor?

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 2.b Full Wave Rectifier
Aim:
1. To observe the input and output waveforms of the Full-wave rectifier on CRO
with and without filter.
2. To find load regulation and ripple factor of a Full-wave rectifier both with and
without filter.

Apparatus Required:

NAME RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER 230 V / 12-0-12 1
DIODE 1N4007 2
CAPACITORS 2 .2 µF 1
100 µF 1
RESISTORS 100 Ω 1
1KΩ 1
2.2 KΩ 1
5.8 KΩ 1
10 KΩ 1
1 MΩ 1
BREADBOARD 1
CATHODE RAY 0 – 20 MHZ DUEL CHANNEL 1
OSCILLOSCOPE
DIGITAL MULTIMETER 1
CONNECTING PROBES SUFFI
CI
E
N
T
CONNECTING WIRES SUFFI
CI
E
N
T

Circuit Diagram:

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

Theory:
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2. During
positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward
biased and D2 is reverse biased. The diode D1 conducts and current flows through
load resistor RL. During negative half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and
D1 reverse biased. Now, D2 conducts and current flows through the load resistor RL
in the same direction.
There is a continuous current flow through the load resistor RL, during both the
half cycles and will get unidirectional current as show in the model graph. The
difference between full wave and half wave rectification is that a full wave rectifier
allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the entire 360 degrees of
the input signal and half- wave rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180
degree).

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary
side to the rectifier input.
3. By the multimeter, measure the, ac and dc voltage at the output of the rectifier
with 100Ω load resistor VAC(RMS) and VDC respectively.
4. From the CRO output, calculate Vm.
5. Repeat the above step by using different load resistors i.e. with 1 KΩ, 2.2 KΩ,
5.8 KΩ and 10 KΩ..
6. For each reading calculate the ripple factor and percentage regulation.
(Calculate percentage regulation using 1 MΩ resistor as no load.)
7. Repeat the above steps (3, 4, 5 and 6) by using 2.2 μF capacitor filter.
8. Repeat the above steps (3, 4, 5 and 6) by using 100 μF capacitor filter.
9. Plot the graphs for AC input I-Phase signal, output of rectifier without filter
and output of rectifier with filter by considering 1 KΩ resistor as load.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

Expected Waveforms:

Observations
Observation for without filter with varying load resistance:

S. No. Load Vdc Vac(rms) Ripple %

Resistor Vm Vm Vm factor(γ) Regulation
= π =

√
2

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Observation for with filter c= 2.2 μF with varying load resistance:

S. No. Load Vdc Vac(rms) Ripple %

Resistor Vm Vm factor(γ) Regulation
= π = Vm
√2

Observation for with filter c= 100 μF with varying load resistance:

S. No. Load Vdc Vac(rms) Ripple %

Resistor Vm Vm factor(γ) Regulation
= π = Vm
√2

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:-

Vrms=Vm/ √2 =
Vdc=Vm/ π =

Without Filter:
)
Ripple factor

√
2
Vrms
γ= – 1 =1.21
Vdc

With Filter:-

Ripple factor, γ=
(
1
4 √3 f C
Where f =50Hz, RC =100μF, R=1KΩ.
Practical calculations:

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Without Filter:

Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor with out Filter = Vac / Vdc =
Ripple factor with Filter = Vac / Vdc =
VNL − V FL
% Regulation = × 100
V
FL

Without Filter:
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor with out Filter = Vac / Vdc =
Ripple factor with Filter = Vac / Vdc =
VNL − V FL
% Regulation = × 100
V
FL

Precautions:
1. The primary and secondary side of the transformer should be carefully
identified
2. The polarities of all the diodes should be carefully identified.
Result:-
The ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier (with filter and without filter) is
calculated.
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define regulation of the full wave rectifier?
2. Define peak inverse voltage (PIV)? And write its value for Full-wave
rectifier?
3. If one of the diode is changed in its polarities what wave form would you
get?
4. Does the process of rectification alter the frequency of the waveform?
5. What is ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier?
6. What is the necessity of the transformer in the rectifier circuit?
7. What are the applications of a rectifier?
8. What is ment by ripple and define Ripple factor?
9. Explain how capacitor helps to improve the ripple factor?
10. Can a rectifier made in INDIA (V=230v, f=50Hz) be used in USA (V=110v,
f=60Hz)?

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 3. TYPES OF CLIPPERS AT DIFFERENT REFERENCE VOLTAGES

Aim:
a) To study the clipping circuits using diodes.
b) To observe the transfer characteristics of all the clipping circuits in CRO.
Apparatus:
1. Function Generator.
2. Bread board
3. Connecting patch cards.
4. CRO
5. RPS
6. Resistors (1 K, 10K)
7. Diodes (1N4007)

Theory:
Clipping circuits basically limit the amplitude of the input signal either below or above certain
voltage level. They are referred to as Voltage limiters, Amplitude selectors or Slicers. A clipping
circuit is one, in which a small section of input waveform is missing or cut or truncated at the out
put section.
Clipping circuits are classified based on the position of Diode.
1.Series Diode Clipper
2.Shunt Diode Clipper
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1
2. In each case apply 10 VP-P, 1KHz Sine wave I/P using a signal generator.
3. O/P is taken across the load RL.
4. Observe the O/P waveform on the CRO and compare with I/P waveform.
5. Sketch the I/P as well as O/P waveforms and mark the numerical values.
6. Note the changes in the O/P due to variations in the reference voltage VR = 2V, 3V..
7. Obtain the transfer characteristics of Fig.1, by keeping CRO in X-Y mode.
8. Repeat the above steps for all the circuit.

Precautions:
1. Set the CRO O/P channel in DC mode always.
2. Observe the waveform simultaneously by keeping common ground.
3. See that there is no DC component in the I/P.
4. To find transfer characteristics apply input to the X-Channel, O/P to Y-Channel, adjust the dot at
the center of the screen when CRO is in X-Y mode. Both the channels must be in ground, then
remove ground and plot the transfer characteristics.

Circuit Diagram Input&Output Wave Forms

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Circuit diagram O/P Wave Forms

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

Circuit Diagram O/P Wave Forms

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

Circuit Diagrams Transfer Characteristics

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology
Result:Different types of clipping circuits have been studied and observed the responses for various combinations
of VR and clipping diodes.

Viva Questions:
1. Define clipping circuit?

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 2. What are the different types of clippers?
3. What is a break region?
4. Which kind of a clipper is called a slicer circuit?
5. What are the disadvantages of the shunt clipper?
6. What are the disadvantages of the series clipper?
7. What is piecewise linear mode of a diode?

4 TYPES OF CLAMPERS AT DIFFERENT REFERENCE VOLTAGES

Aim:
To study the clamping circuits using diodes and capacitors.

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Apparatus:

1. Function Generator.
2. Bread board
3. Connecting patch cards.
4. CRO
5. RPS
6. Resistors ( 100 K )
7. Diodes (1N4007)
8. Capacitor (0.1f)

Theory:

Clamping circuits add a DC level to an AC signal. A clamper is also refer to as

DC restorer or DC re-inserter. The Clampers which clamp the given waveform either above or below the
reference level, which are known as positive or negative clamping respectively.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1.
2. Apply a Sine wave of 10VP-P, 1 KHz at the input terminals with the help of Signal Generator.
3. Observe the I/P & O/P waveforms of CRO and plot the waveforms and mark the values with VR =
2 V, 3V
4. O/P is taken across the load RL.
5. Repeat the above steps for all clamping circuits as shown.
6. Waveforms are drawn assuming diode is ideal.

Circuit diagram I/P & O/P Wave Forms

Vi =5V

-5V
V0
0.5V t
BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology
 V0 -9.5V

V0
9.5V

V0 5V

-0.5V t

V0

t
-1.5V
V0

-6.5V

-11.5V

Circuit diagram O/P Wave forms

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

Result:
Different types of clamping circuits are studied and observed the response for different combinations of VR
and diodes.

Viva Questions:

1.What are the applications of clamping circuits?

2.What is the synchronized clamping?

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology

 3.Why is a clamper called a dc inserter?
4.What is clamping circuit theorem. How dose the modified clamping
Circuit theorem differs from this?
5. Differentiate –ve clamping circuit from +ve clamping circuits in the
above circuits?
6. Describe the charging and discharging of a capacitor is each circuit?
7. What is the function of capacitor?
8. What are the effects of diode characteristics on the output of the
Clamper?

BEE Lab. Manual, J B Institute of Engineering & Technology