FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

MINNA

Department of Physics
PHY 512: SOLID STATE PHYSICS II

GROUP

MATRIC NO NAMES

2018/1/73416PP Habeeb Okikiola Raji

2018/1/74757PP Olamide Ayomide Odejobi

2019/1/77791PP Olawale Azeez Adiat

2019/1/76228PP Olayinka Olorunju

2019/1/78468PP Oluwakemi Oghenerukevwe Folorunso

1(a) Enumerate and three outstanding electrical and thermal properties of metals
Outstanding electrical and thermal properties of metals
1. High electrical conductivity: due to the present of free electrons that moves easily through
the metallic lattice.
2. Low electrical resistivity: Metals offer minimal resistance to the flow of electric current
3. Positive temperature coefficient of resistance: resistance increases with temperature because
atomic vibration hinders electron flow.
Thermal properties
1. High thermal conductivity: free electrons transfer heat energy efficiently.
2. Thermal expansion: metals expand when heated due to increased atomic vibrations.
3. High melting point: strong metallic bonds require high temperatures to break.

1(b) Identify any three experimental observations that ran into difficulties in the free electron
theory of metals when the Maxwell-Boltzman statistics is used.

Here are three experimental observations that ran difficulties with the free electron
theory of metals when using Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics:
1. Specific Heat Capacity: The specific heat capacity of metals was found to be much lower
than predicted by the free electron theory using Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. This
discrepancy arises because Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics assume that all electrons
contribute to the specific heat, whereas in reality, only a small fraction of electrons near
the Fermi level contribute.
2. Thermal Conductivity: the thermal conductivity of metals was found to be much higher
than predicted by the free electron theory using Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. This
discrepancy arises because Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics assume that electrons collide
frequently with the lattice, whereas in reality, electrons can travel long distances without
colliding.
3. Hall Effect and Magnetoresistance: The Hall effect and Magnetoresistance experiments
showed that the number of charge carriers in metals is much smaller than predicted by
the free electron theory using Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics assume that all electrons are
free to move, whereas in reality, many electrons are bound to the lattice or form bound
states.
These difficulties led to the development of new theories, such as the Fermi-Dirac statistics and
the band theory of solids, which provide a more accurate description of the behavior of
electrons in metals.
(1)(c) State any three assumptions of the free electron theory of metals
The free electron theory of metals is based on the following three assumptions:
1. Metals contain a large number of free electrons – The valence electrons in a metal are free to
move throughout the entire solid, forming an electron gas.
2. Electrons move randomly and obey classical mechanics – In the simplest form (Drude
model), electrons move in straight lines between collisions with ions, similar to gas molecules
in kinetic theory.
3. Electrons experience no potential except at boundaries – Inside the metal, electrons are
assumed to move in a constant potential, with no influence from the periodic arrangement of
atoms, except when they collide with the metal's boundaries.

2(a) Define the term Fermi energy level, EF(0), with respect to metals.
The Fermi energy level, also known as the Fermi level, is the highest energy level that an
electron can occupy at absolute zero temperature (0K) in a metal.
At absolute zero, all energy levels below the Fermi level are occupied by electrons, while all
energy levels above the Fermi level are empty. The Fermi level is a critical concept in
understanding the behavior of electrons on metals.
In metals, the Fermi level is typically located within a band of allowed energy levels, known as
the valence band or conduction band. The Fermi level serves as a reference point for measuring
the energy of electrons in the metal.

2(b) Does the Fermi energy level decrease or increase of temperature? Explain briefly your
answer.
The Fermi energy level remains relatively constant with temperature.
In metals, the Fermi energy level is determined by the density of states and the number of
electrons, which are fixed properties of the material. As temperature increases, the electrons are
excited to higher energy levels, but the Fermi level itself remains relatively unchanged.
2(c) Starting from fundamental theory of electrical conduction in a wire of length L and
resistance R passing a current I, show that current density j = σE, where σ is the electrical
conductivity and E is the potential gradient or electric field.
Let’s start from the fundamental theory of electrical conduction.
We know that the current (I) flowing through a wire is proportional to the voltage (V) applied
across it, and inversely proportional to the resistance (R) of the wire:
I=V/R
We can rewrite this equation using ohm’s law:
V=IR
Now, let’s consider a wire of length (L) and cross-sectional area (A). The resistance (R) of the
wire is given by:
R = pL/A
Where P is the resistivity of the material.
Substituting this expression for R into the previous equation, we get:
V = IPL/A
Now, we can define the electric field (E) as the voltage per unit length:
E = V/L
Substituting this expression for E into the previous equation, we get:
E = IP/A
Now, we can define the current density (j) as the current per unit area:
j = I/A
Substituting this expression for j into the previous equation, we get:
j = E/P
finally, we can define the electrical conductivity (σ) as the reciprocal of the resistivity:
σ = 1/P
Substituting this expression for σ into the previous equation, we get:
J = σE.
3(a) Draw the energy band diagram of an intrinsic semi conductor. Show all the important
energy levels.
Energy Band Diagram of an Intrinsic Semiconductor
The energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor consists of:
1.Conduction Band (EC): The higher energy band where free electrons exist.
2.Valence Band (EV): The lower energy band where electrons are normally present.
3.Fermi Level (EF): The energy level where the probability of finding an electron is 50%.
4.Band Gap (Eg): The energy difference between the conduction and valence bands.

Conduction Band (EC)

--------------------------------------
↑
Band Gap (Eg)
↓
-------------------------------------
Valence Band (EV)

Fermi Level (EF) (at center for intrinsic semiconductors)

In an intrinsic semiconductor, (EF) is located approximately midway between (EC) and (EV)
because the number of electrons and holes are equal.

(b) Write down a expression for the Fermi-Dirac distribution function and explain briefly its
meaning
The Femi-Dirac distribution function is given by:
1
f(E) = (E −Ef )/ kT
1+ e

Where:
 F(E) is the probability of an energy level being occupied by an electron
 E is the energy level
 Ef is the Fermi energy level
 K is the Boltzmann constant
 T is the temperature in Kelvin
 e is the base f the natural logarithm
This distribution function describes the probability of finding an electron in a particular energy
state. Its statistical distribution that takes into account the Pauli exclusion principle, which
states that no two electrons can occupy the same energy state simultaneously.
The Fermi-Dirac distribution has several key features:
 At absolute zero (T=0), f€ =1 for E<Ef and f€ = 0 for E>Ef
 As temperature increases, the distribution becomes less sharp, and electrons can occupy
higher energy levels
 The Fermi energy level (Ef) acts as a reference point, separating occupied and
unoccupied energy levels.
(c) In a intrinsic semi conductor the Fermi energy level may be defined as:
m∗¿ p
EF ¿
❑
E C +E
2
V

+ { 3 KT4 }In { m∗¿ ¿ ¿}, where Ec, Ev, k, T, m

e
*
p and m*e are the conduction band
energy, respectively. If m*p = m*e , explain the nature of the temperature dependence of EF.
Temperature Dependence in an Intrinsic Semiconductor
The Fermi energy level in an intrinsic semiconductor is given by:

EF = 2 + 2 ln
Ec+ E v
kT
( mm )
p

Ec+ E kT
EF = + 2
v

EF remains at the center of the band gap and does not shift with temperature.
 This happens because the electron and hole masses are equal, meaning the number of
conduction electrons and valence holes remain balanced.

 In real intrinsic semi conductors, mp ≠ me, so EF shifts slightly with temperature,

moving closer to the band with the lower effective mass.

4 An electron is in a one dimensional infinite potential well of thee form:

V(x) = ∞, x≤ 0 and x≥ a = 0, otherwise
(i) Sketch the potential energy profile
Potential Energy Profile Sketch
The infinite potential well is defined as:
V(x) = {∞ ,0x, ≤0<0∧x
x<a }
≥a

Graphical Representation
V(x)
|
| ∞ ┌───────────────┐ ∞
| │ │
| 0 │ │ 0
|──────────────┼──────────┼───────── x
| 0 a
Inside the well (0 < x < a), V(x) = 0, meaning the electron behaves like a free particle within the
well but is confined due to the infinite walls.
(ii) Determine the normalized eigenfunctions of the electrons
Normalized Eigen functions of the Electron
The time-independent Schrödinger equation inside the well () is:

Boundary Conditions:
1. Ψ(0) = 0→ Since the potential is infinite at x=0 , the wave function must be zero. This
removes the B cos (kx) term, leaving:
Ψ(x) = A sin (kx)
2. Ψ(a) = 0 → Applying this condition:
A sin(ka) = 0
Ka = nπ, n=1,2,3…….
K = nπ/a
Thus, the normalized wave function is:
 (iii) The eigenvalue of the electrons
The energy levels are given by:

Thus, the quantized energy levels are:

(iv) What is the significance of the result?

1. Energy Quantization:
 The electron can only have discrete energy values, meaning it cannot take arbitrary energy
within the well.
 The ground state energy () is nonzero, meaning the electron cannot be at rest (this is due to
the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle).

2. Higher Energy Levels:

 The energy increases with, meaning higher energy states become farther apart.
3. Wave function Interpretation:
 The wave functions describe standing waves inside the well.
 The number of nodes (zero crossings) increases with, corresponding to higher energy levels.
This model is fundamental in quantum mechanics and is used to describe electrons in quantum
dots, nanostructures, and particle confinement in semiconductors.

5 The resistivity of Aluminium at 300K is 2.62 . 10-8Ωm. Evaluate

(a) The drift velocity of conduction electrons in a field of 50Vm-1
Given Data:
(a) Drift Velocity () Calculation

The drift velocity is given by the equation:

vd = j/ne

j = σE(current density),
σ = 1/ρ (conductivity),
n is the number of conduction electrons per unit volume.

Solution

 Conductivity σ = 1/ρ =

 Number Density of Free Electrons (n)

Assuming Aluminum contributes 3 free electrons per atom (since it's a Group 3 metal):
 Current Density j

 Drift Velocity vd

(b) Mobility, µ and

The mobility of electrons is given by:

(c) The relaxation time r( atomic mass of Al = 26.982g, density of Al = 2700kgm-3, me = m –

9.1* 10-31kg, where me and m are the effective and rest mass of the electron, respectively.
The relaxation time T is given by:
 (d) The intrinsic concentration of a semi conductor is given as:
Eg
ni = CT3/2 exp (- ), where C = 4.83*1023. If Eg = 1eV, which is the band energy T =
2 KT
300K. Calculate the order of ni

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (ni) Calculation

The intrinsic carrier concentration is given by:

Assuming a typical semiconductor with Eg =1.12 eV (for silicon):

6(a) Define the term superconductor and give any two examples
 A super conductor is a material that can conduct electricity without resistance when it is
cooled below a certain critical temperature. i.e. electrical current can flow indefinitely
without energy loss
Example of super conductors
(1) Niobium (Nb)
(2) Vitrium Barium Copper Oxide (VBCo)
(b) Sketch the plot of resistance vs temperature for a super conductor and indicate on the
graph the transition temperature Tc
Resistance vs. Temperature Graph for a Superconductor
Below is a general sketch of the resistance vs. temperature curve for a superconductor:
Resistance (Ω)
│

│ ─────────── (Normal conducting state)

│

│ |

│ |

│ |

│ |

│ |

│ |

│ |

│ |

│ |

│ |

│ |

│────────┼─────────────── Temperature (K)

Tc

 Above Tc: The material behaves like a normal conductor and has resistance.
 At Tc : The resistance suddenly drops to zero.
  Below Tc : The material is in the superconducting state, with zero resistance and perfect
diamagnetism (Meissner effect).
(c) (i) Discuss briefly any three characteristics of a superconductor
Here are three characteristics of a superconductor:
1. Zero Electrical Resistance: Superconductors have zero electrical resistance, meaning that
they can conduct electricity with perfect efficiency and without losing any energy.
2. Meissner Effect: Superconductors expel magnetic fields, a phenomenon known as the
Meissner effect. When a superconductor is cooled below its critical temperature, it
becomes perfectly diamagnetic, meaning that it rejects magnetic fields.
3. Critical Temperature: Superconductors have a critical temperature (Tc) below which they
exhibit superconducting properties. Above Tc, the material behaves like a normal
conductor. The critical temperature varies depending on the material, with some
superconductors having Tc values near absolute zero and others having Tc values at
relatively higher temperatures.
(ii) Discuss briefly any two potential applications of superconductors in electricity
generation and the medical field
Here are two potential applications of superconductors:
Electricity Generation
1. Superconducting Power Transmission Lines: Superconductors can be used to create
highly efficient power transmission lines that can transport electricity with zero loss of
energy. This can help reduce energy consumption, increase grid efficiency, and enable
the widespread adoption of renewable energy sources.
Medical Field
2. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Machines: Superconductors are already used in
MRI machines to create strong magnetic fields required for imaging. Next-generation
MRI machines using advanced superconducting materials could enable even higher-
resolution imaging, Faster scan times, and new diagnostic capabilities