Electrical Properties

• Important terms
• Energy bands in solids
• Classification of materials based on energy bands
• Electron energy distribution function and conductivity calculations
• Semiconductors
• Dielectrics and their properties

1
 Electrical Conduction
• Ohm's Law:
V=IR
voltage drop (volts = J/C) resistance (Ohms)
C = Coulomb current (amps = C/s)

• Resistivity, r:

-- a material property that is independent of sample size and

geometry surface area
RA of current flow

 l
current flow
path length

• Conductivity, s 
1


2
 J =   <= another way to state Ohm’s law

current I
J  current density   like a flux
surface area A

  electric field potential = V/

J =  (V/ )

Electron flux conductivity voltage gradient

3
 Drift Speed
When a current flows through a conductor
the electric field causes the charges to move
with a constant drift speed vd . This drift speed
is superimposed on the random motion of the
charges.
 
J  nvd e J  nevd
Consider the conductor of cross-sectional area A shown in the figure. We assume
that the current in the conductor consists of positive charges. The total charge
q within a length L is given by q   nAL  e. This charge moves through area A
L q nALe
in a time t  . The current is i    nAvd e.
vd t L / vd
i nAvd e
The current density is J    nvd e.
A A
 
In vector form: J  nevd .
Electron Mobility
 
J  nevd
 
J E

J = Current density
n = Number of electrons per unit volume
vd = Drift velocity
σ = Conductivity
e = Charge of an electron
E = Applied eletric field
μ = Electron mobility
 Drift
Drift → Movement of charged particles in response to an external field (typically an electric
field)

E-field applies force

F = qE
which accelerates the charged particle.
However, the particle does not accelerate
indefinitely because of collisions with the lattice
(velocity saturation)
Average velocity
<vx> ≈ -µnEx electrons
< vx > ≈ µpEx holes
µn → electron mobility
→ empirical proportionality constant
between E and velocity
µp → hole mobility E

µn ≈ 3µp µ↓ as T↑
 Drift
Drift → Movement of charged particles in response to an external field (typically an electric
field)

E-field applies force

F = qE
which accelerates the charged particle.
However, the particle does not accelerate Current Density
indefinitely because of collisions with the lattice
(velocity saturation)
J n ,drift   n qnE
Average velocity
<vx> ≈ -µnEx electrons J p ,drift   p qpE
< vx > ≈ µpEx holes
µn → electron mobility q = 1.6×10-19 C, carrier density
→ empirical proportionality constant n = number of e-
between E and velocity p = number of h+
µp → hole mobility

µn ≈ 3µp µ↓ as T↑
 Energy band in solids

Energy levels of an isolated atom

©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
Energy bands of solid sodium
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
Electron Energy Band Structures

Adapted from Fig. 18.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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 Energy Band Structure

Adapted from Fig. 18.3,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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• Valence band - The energy levels filled by electrons in their
lowest energy states.

• Conduction band - The unfilled energy levels into which

electrons can be excited to provide conductivity.

• Energy gap (Band gap) - The energy between the top of the
valence band and the bottom of the conduction band that a
charge carrier must obtain before it can transfer a charge.
 Silicon
Silicon is the primary semiconductor used in VLSI systems

Si has 14 Electrons

Energy Bands
(Shells) Valence Band

Nucleus

At T=0K, the highest

energy band
occupied by an
Silicon has 4 outer shell / electron is called the
valence electrons valence band.
 Band Diagrams
EC Increasing electron energy

Eg
EV
Increasing voltage
Band Diagram Representation
Energy plotted as a function of position

EC  Conduction band
 Lowest energy state for a free electron

EV  Valence band
 Highest energy state for filled outer shells

EG  Band gap
 Difference in energy levels between EC and EV
 No electrons (e-) in the bandgap (only above EC or below EV)
 EG = 1.12eV in Silicon
 The Fermi-Dirac electron energy distribution function
The Fermi-Dirac Function

• f(E) is a Probability density function (PDF)

• The probability that an available state at an
energy E will be occupied by an electron at f(E)
absolute temperature T can be written as,
n 1 1
f E   
N 1  e E  E f  kT
0.5
E  Energy level of interest
Ef  Fermi level
 Halfway point where f(E) = 0.5 Ef E
k  Boltzmann constant
= 1.38×10-23 J/K
= 8.62×10-5 eV/K
T Absolute temperature (in Kelvins)
N = Total number of available electrons at 0 K
n = Number of electron promoted above
Fermi level
 Fermi-Dirac distribution: Consider T  0 K

For E > EF : 1
f ( E  EF )   0
1  exp ()
For E < EF :
1
f ( E  EF )   1
1  exp ( )

EF

0 1 f(E) 24
 The Fermi level
Electrons in solids obey Fermi – Dirac statistics: The following consideration are
used in the development of this
statistics:
1
f (E) 
1  exp( E  E F ) / kT  1. indistinguishability of the
electrons,

where k is Boltzmann’s constant 2. electron wave nature,

k=8.62ּ10-5 eV/K=1.38 10-23 J/K. 3. the Pauli exclusion principle.

The function f(E) called the Fermi-Dirac distribution function gives the probability that an
available energy state at E will be occupied by an electron at absolute temperature T.
The quantity EF is called the Fermi level, and it represents an important quantity in the analysis
of semiconductor behavior. For an energy E = EF the occupation probability is

1 1
f ( E F )  1  exp( E F  E F ) / kT 
1
 
11 2
This is the probability for electrons to occupy the Fermi level.
 The Fermi – Dirac distribution function
At T=0K f(E) has rectangular shape
the denominator of the exponent is
1/(1+0)=1 when (E<Ef), exp. negative
1/(1+)-0 when (E>Ef), exp. positive

At 0 К every available energy state up to EF is filled with

electrons, and all states above EF are empty.
At temperatures higher than 0 K, some probability f(E)
exists for states above the Fermi level to be filled with
The Fermi – Dirac distribution function
electrons and there is a corresponding probability [1 -
for different temperatures f(E)] that states below EF are empty.
The Fermi function is symmetrical about EF for all temperatures.
The probability exists for
state E above EF is filled – f(EF+ E)
state E below EF is filled – [1- f(EF - E)]

The symmetry of the dis­tribution of empty and filled states about EF makes the Fermi level a natural
reference point in calculations of electron and hole concentrations in semiconductors.
In applying the Fermi-Dirac distribution to semiconductors, we must recall that f(E) is the probability of
occupancy of an available state at E. Thus if there is no available state at E (e.g., in the band gap of a
semiconductor), there is no possibility of finding an electron there.
T>0K 1
P( E ) 
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 kT 

1 0K
P(E) →

T
si ng
a
cre
I n
0 E → EF
 Fermi-Dirac distribution and the Fermi-level
Density of states tells us how many states exist at a given energy E. The Fermi function
f(E) specifies how many of the existing states at the energy E will be filled with electrons.
The function f(E) specifies, under equilibrium conditions, the probability that an
available state at an energy E will be occupied by an electron. It is a probability
distribution function.

EF = Fermi energy or Fermi level

k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 1023 J/K
= 8.6  105 eV/K
T = absolute temperature in K
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Temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac distribution

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