Algebraic Structures 171

HK,KsH H= K.
Therefore, there can be at most one subgroup of G of order p.
In particular case, a group of order 6 has at most one subgroup of order 3, since
6=3x2
3x2 where 3 > 2 and both 3 and 2 are primes.
2.20. PERMUTATION

concept for the elements of a group, known

as
Firstly we shall consider a new

permutation.

S onto
Definition. |Let S be a finite set of order n, then a one-one mapping of
set S is called the
itself is called a permutation of degree n. The order of the finite
degree of permutation
18 a
Symbolic representation of permutation. Suppose S {a, a2, Gn = ,

then
one-one onto (i.e., bijective) mapping,
finite set of order n. Letf:S>S be a
flan) b, where b1. b2 On
a permutation. Suppose f(a1) =b1. flag) =bgy
= .,

fis
are nothing but a , a2 . , , in some order so that (b1, b2, .., b,) = laj, a2 , an

line representation as
In this notation the permutation f is represented by two

follows
a1 a2 .. Gn |
f=
is the f-image of the element of the 1st row
in which each element in the 2nd
row

it.
Iying directly above 5, then
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5) be a finite set of order
For example. Let S =

elements 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
permutations of degree 5. In the permutation f, the
are all 3 respectively. So, we have f1) 5,
=

have been replaced by 5, 1, 4, 2, we have

3. Similarly in the permutation &,
1, f3) 4, f4) 2, f5)
=
f2) = = =

4.
8(1)= 2, g(2) 1, g(3) 3, g(4) 5, g(5)
=
=
= =

Two permutations f and g of the same degree n are

Equal permutations.
S.
called equaliffla) = g(a) Vae
For example, if f= 4 5 1 and g- 4 521 are

since both f andg replacel

5, then here we have f=g
wO permutations of degree Thus a permutation can be
described in
5 by 1.
Dy 2, 2 by 3, 3 by 4, 4 by 5 and
several ways, as 1 2 3 letc.

of columns will not change the

We observe that the interchange
clearly then we can
1 2 * nis a permutation of degree n,
permutation. Hence iff=|b, b..
Write
a "n 3 d2 a1. letc
a1 etc.
fb bo b b3 ba b.b,
Algebraic Structures

But m is prime to n and 0 s

(k-ko) Sn. Therefore
n m
(k1-k2) k1 -k 0 k =k2 =a*1 =
=
ata
Hence
fis one-one.
fa)= fa) =a'1=a*
fis onto. Since G is finite and fis
one-one, therefore f must be onto G.
Lastly if a1, aAz e G, then
=
fai a*) =flak1**a) fa)*tka =
=
d"m &, +k)
-
am am (a"m*i (a"* {fa))*: (fa)
=
=

- fa) fa*).
Therefore the mapping f is an automorphism for each positive integer m less
than n and prime to n. Hence the group of automorphism of G is of order r
Theorem 3. Shouw that the group of automorphims of a cyclic group is
abelian.
Proof. Let G be a cyclic group and G =la). Let fm, fm, be two automorphisms
of G and defined by
Tm, (a) =a"1, fn, (a) =a"a
Now Gm, 0fm,) a) =fm, Vm, (a)) fm, (a"a) =

m, (a)]2 (amaya =amm2 =

= (amay=Vm, (a)"1 =fm, (a)

fm,Um, a)l Gm,°fm,) (a).

=

automorphisms of a cyclic group

are equal if the image of a
We know that two
generator of a group under each
of them is the same.

fm, fm, Ofm

of a cyclic group is abelian.
Thus the group of automorphisms
2.27. RING which are sets possessing two
some structures
We will describe and
now
these operations addition'
We usually call
operations simultaneously. the dotis also
the+and 0. For multiplication,
them by
multiplication', and denote the symbol is
omitted altogether
more frequently the
d Sometimes, while compositions, i.e., they satisfy
a r e binary
t is assumed that the
operations closure property explicitly.
omit to mention the
therefore
closu
Sure property. We shall termed the ring. A non-empty
define is
structure we
are going to is called a ring, if
Thefirst such and multiplication,
set operations of addition
ogether with the
is a n abelian group.
t h e system (R, +) and
semi-group,
) is a
44) the system (R,
addition.
with regard to
distributive of associativity
multiplication is
(iü) ultiplication 18 dition satisties the pproperties
satisfies the inlication satisfies
satisfies
T
Thus the operation
of addition
operation of
multiplication

inverse;
the over
addition.
and distributive

ssmmutativity,atvity, identity well as right

multiplication
is left as

and
ativity
228

We usually write the ring structure as (R, +, X) or

screte Strus
(R, +,+,.)).or
or (R,
the operations
follows
are understood. In symbols we describe the ne above simply a

R1. (R, +) is an abelian group, i.e. if a, b, c are any elements of the postulats
the set R,h
R. Closure law for addition.
.

a,be R a +be R Va,bE R.

R12. Associative law for addition.
(a+b)+c=a +(b +c) Va, b,c e R.
R13.Existence of additive identity.
aeR,30e R such that
a+0= 0+a =a.
R4.Existence of additive inverse.
VaeR 3 -a e Rsuch that
a+(-a) = (-a) + a = 0
is called the additive inverse of a.
-

R15. Commutative law for addition.

a+b= b +a Va, b e R.
Ro. (R, .) a semi
is
group, i.e.,
R21. Closure law for multiplication.
a,be R a . b e
Va,b e R. R
R22. Associative law for multiplication.
R. Distributive law. (a.b).c=a.(b.c) Va, b, c ce R.
Rg.Left distributive law.
a.(b+c)
Rag. Right distributive law. =a .b+a.c Va, b, ce R.

Remarks: (b+c).a =b.a+c.a Va, b, c e R.

(i) Additive identity 0 is
(ii) - a is the additive unique and is called zero element of the
inverse of a, it is ring
(ii) Equation a + =b where
x unique.
a, b e R has a
b+(-a) or unique solution
(iv) (b-a) in R.
Cancellation laws are satissied,
i.e.,
and a+C =b +c a =b,
c+a c +b a =b.
S 2.27. (A) TYPES OF RINGS
ka) Null Ring.
Definition. The singleton set (0) with two ined

is
0+0=0 and 0.0=0 binary operations*,
a ring called the zero ring or
(b) Ring with the null
Unity. ring.
Definition. If3
element in the ring
an

1.a R, denoted by 1, sucn that

then the ring is called =a .1=a, V a e R
or unity or
ring with unity and the element '1 is
i te l e m

identity of R. ca
AlgebruicS t r u cures
lu

229
Commutative Ring.
If the
Definition.
commutative
nultiplication in
ring is also commuta a

kno emark.
known
as

k, IfR
ring. atative, then the ring
is IfR ring with unity, then
is
i
be R such that an element ac Ris called
f3an
element

inversible
b = aand it is
a.b=1=b.a.
e write called the multiplicative inverse of a.
Brample. 1 and - i are the only inversible elements of the ring of all
integers.

Note. The set of all inversible elements of a

ring R is denoted by R*.
(d) Ring of integers.
nefinition. The set I of all integers with two binary operations addition +
multiplication". of integers is known as the ring of integers.
In a similar way, we can define ring of rational numbers, ring of complex
numbers, ring ot real numbers, ring of matrices, ring of residue classes modulo a
of functions, etc.
pOsitive integer m, ring
(e) Boolean Ring.
Definition. Aring whose every element is idempotent, i.e.,
a=a vae R
is known as Boolean ring.

5.27. (B) EXAMPLES OF RINGS

integers is a commutative ring without
Example 1. The set 2I of all even

of being two ring compositions.

unity, addition and multiplication integersnumbers is a commutative ring with
rational
Example 2. The set Q of all of rational numbers being
two ring
unity, the addition and multiplication
compositions. is a commutative ring with
of all real numbers
Bxample 3. The set R of all real numbers being the two ring
multiplication
unity the addition and
ring with
compositions. numbers is a
commutative

C of all complex the two ring

Example 4. The set complex
numbers being
multiplication of
t h e addition and
with the
compositions. is ring, ie. (4,t, ) is a ring
integers I
a
of all called ring ofintegers
ample 5. The set Such a ring is
positions ofaddition and multiplication.
abelian grouP
Ri. I, +) is
an integer,
Solution. two integers
is again an

addition of
1 Closure Since the
OSure property.
to the
addition
ofintegers.
respect composition in
I, ie.,
erefore I is closed with associative

addition is
2R Associativit
O c i a t i v i t y . We
know that
= a + (b
c e I
+c) Va, b, tity since
since
+c
(a +b) additive
identity
is
Integer 0
13 Existence of identity.
0 +a
Vae I
integer
-
a such

+0 =a
=
exists an
a there
integer a
14 Existen nce of i n v e r s e .
For every

that +(-a).
(-a)+a =0 =a
230
Ri5. Commutativity. Since I
Ri5. Commutativi h+a
b +a Va, bbEl
e

a +b =

semi-group. integers:
R2. (1,.) is a of two
an
1-Closure
property.
Since the
multipiication

a.be I Va,be I. integer,ie

a,b e I multiplication
of integers,
to
with respect
Thus I is closed is a n associative composi:

R22 Associativity.
Multiplication
of integers
(b.c) Va,
(a.b).c=a.
b, ee I ition,ie
of integers is
distrihue
Since the
multiplication ributive w
D i s t r i b u t i v e law.
i.e.,
addition of integers,
respect to (left distributive la
va, b, c e
R31.a.(b +c) =a.b +a.c right distributive la
Va, b, cEl
Rg2.(b+ c).a =b.a+c.a
Hence the (1,+,) forms a ring.
system l =1.a ..
Va e I, so tha8et
I and a.
Remark. Since a.b=b.a Va,be
commutative ring with unity.
all integers I is a
the set I (V2) of real
numbers of the form min
Example 6. Prove that addition and multiplication.
where m, n are integers, is a ring with ordinary
Solution. LetI (V2)+nv2 : m, n e I.
=
{m
c e Rarbitrarily, then 3 m, n1, m2,
n2, m3, ng E
Let a, b,
then
m+njv2, b mg + naV2, c mg + ngv2, =

=
=
such that a

a+b (m +n2)) + (m2 +ngV2)

(m +ma)+(n1 +n2) V2 e I . m t ma, nta
a.b=(m1 +njv2). (m2 +ngv2)
(mma+2nna) + (mn2 + nm) V2 e I.
mm2 + 2n1n2, mina +n,m-
R. The set (I(V2), +) is an abelian group.

Ru. Closure property. Since

a +b=(m+nv2) +(m + ng2)
=
(m1 +ma) +(n1 +n2) V2 e I (2) Va, be I (V2).
I(2) is closed with respect to addition.
R12. Associativity. Since
(a +b) +c =
lm]+ni12) + (m2 +ngN2)} + (mg +ngv2)
{(m +ma)+ (ntna) V2) + (mg +ngv2)
=
(m+ m2+ mg)+(n1 +no + ng) 2
(m+nN2) + {(m2+mg) + (ng +ng) N2
a+(b +c).
Therefore the operation of addition is
Ri2. Existence of identity. 0 +0W2 e I associative in I (V2).
(V2) is identity, since
(m +nv2)+ (0
Therefore, there exists
+OV2) =m + nv2 Vm+nN2 e I (VZ)
additive identity in I (V2.
M l e b r a i cS

23

ee of inverse. There exists the inverse

h Existe

N2 e I (V2), ie.,
-
m - nv2 e I (V2) of each
element

(m +nv2) +(-m nv2) -

=
0+ 02 additive identity.
Commutativity. Since
a+b =
(m+nV2)+ (m2+ngv2)
=
(m1tm2)+ (71 +n2) 2
(m2 + mi) + (n2 +ni) V2
=
(m2 + ng 2) + (m+n v2)
=b+a v a, be I(V2).
Therefore the operation of addition is commutative in I (V2).
semi group.
R. IW2), ) is a
for multiplication. Since
Closure law
a.b=(m1 +njv2).(mo +ngv2)
(m1m2+2n1n2)+ (mn2 t man1) Y2
= a+ BV2 e I (V2).
is satisfied for the operation of multiplication.
Thus closure property
Associative law for multiplication. Since
Rop.
(a.6).c (m1 +njv2).(ma +ngV2)) . (m3 +ngv2)
V2}. (mg +ngV2)
l(mm2+ 2n1ng)+ (m ng + nima)
=

(mm2+ 2n1n2) m3+ 2(m2 +nmy) nal

=
2
nma) mg + (mm2 2nng) ngl
+
+I(m ng +
2)
(m
=
+nV2).{(mamng +2n1ng)+(mgng+ namg)
+ n^2). (m2+ngV2). (m3 +ng
V2)
(m
=a.(b.c).
associative.
multiplication is
Thus the operation of
e I(V2)
g.Distributive law. For every a, b, c
(m +ngV2) + (mg +ngv2))
a.(b+c) =(m1 +n^V2). V2)
(m1 +nV2) {(m2
.
+mg) +(ng +ng) + nma + mg)N2
(n2 + +
ng)) \mi(n2 +ng)
=m (m2 + mg) 2n1
+

+ (nm2 t m2) 2) V2)

l(m m2 +2n1ng) +(m m3+ 2n1ng)+(nmg +m^ng)
(mg +ngv2)
+ngV2)) + {(m1 +njv2)
.

Left distributive law

=
(m1 +n,V2). (m2
=a.b+a.c
(Right distributive law]
that
Similarly we can see
=b.a +c.a. a their elements
as real
(6 +c). m a t r i c e s with and
all n x n to a d d i t i o n
xample 7. The set M of w i t h respect
with unity
numbers nple
um is a n o n - c o m m u t a t i v e

two
ring
ring
composttions.
matrices with their
ultinl
multiplicatic
Lon of
matrices a s

We know that
the
the
sum
and product of two n

with their
x n
elements as
real

Solution.
elen nents again are
n xn
matrices

to a d d i t i o n and
multiplication
of

as real numbers respect

numt Therefore M is closed with
matrices
atri
 DIsch
Screte StruC
232

Further we
observe that,
+C VA, B,
Ce M, since
adition of matritea
the additio

(i) A+ (B+C) =(4 +B)

an associative composition. since the
addition
of matrices 8

haveommutati.
VA, Be M, then 0 e M and wo
(i) A +B =B +A type n xn,
(ii) IfO is the
null matrix ofthe VAe M.
0+A=A A hs
M there exists a matrix -

e
M such
matrix A e
(iv) To each
matrix). of
(-A) +A =0(null since multiplication

(v) (AB) C =A (BC), VA, B, CE M, atrices

associative.
(vi) A (B +C)=AB +AC
CA VA, B, C M,
e
and (B+C)A =BA + to matrix addition
distributive with respect
is
since matrix multiplication
of matrices in not is general commutati
Now, since the multiplication
non-commutative ring with respect to the given composis.
Therefore M is a
element of this ring i.e., 0
n x n is zero
The null matrix 0 of the type x n, then Ie M and we ha
matrix of the type n have
Finally ifI be the unit matrix I 1s the multiplicative identity T
the
IA =A =AI VAe M. Therefore
I unit element of the ring i.e., I = 1
the ring is with unity and the matrix is the
is a commutative ring with respect
Example 8. The set R {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
=

46 and xg as the two ring compositions.

Solution. As we have proved in groups, we should first prove that R is a
abelian group with respect to +6.
Now we form the composition table for R under the composition X
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0
1 1 2 3 4 5
2 2 0 2
3 0 3 0 3 0 3
4 0 2 2
5 0 5 3 2 1
From the composition table we see that R is closed with th
composition 6. respect
Also we know that X6 is associative composition in R
an
i.e., s(b Xs c) (a xg b) xg c Va, b, ce R.
a =

Further X6 is distributive in Rwith ementa

R, then respect to +e. Ifa, b, c are any

a
X b t6 c) =a xg (b +c)
T6+c (mod 6) =bt
=
least non-negative by 6
=
least remainder when a(b + c) is dividedd by6
non-negative remainder when ab + ac is
(ab) +6 (ac) divu
(a Xg b) +g (ac) od

axe b =ab
=
(a X6 b) +6 (a Xg C). C E a c
(mod e
6
AlgebraicStructure:
233

Similarly w e
can prove that
(b +6 c) Xga
(b *g a) +6 c Xg @).
=

Ris a ring with respect to the given compositions. Since X6 is a commutative

ngition in R as is clear from the composition table also, therefore R is a
compositio

comutative ring. Aso I 18 the identity element for the composition Xg. Therefore
commutati

ring with unity. The integer 0 is the zero element of the ring.
Ris
Important. we see that in this ring R neither 2 nor 3 is equal to the zero
elementof
element of1the ring. But 2 x6 3 = 0 (zero element of the ring).
Thus in a ring it is pOssible that the product of two non-zero elements is equal
a the zero element. Also the number of elements in R is finite. Therefore this is an
example of a
finite ring.
sOME SPECIAL TYPES OF RINGS
2.27. (C)
Zero divisors. We have proved that in any ring R, if 0 is the additiveidentity,
there are
t h e zero element of the ring, then Oa =a0 =0 Va e R. However
it is possible that ab 0 when neither a 0 nor b = 0. Such elements
rings in which
= =

z e r o divisors.
are called
when neither
Definition. If in a ring R there exist a and b such that ab =0
zero divisors.
a0 nor b = 0, then the elements a and b are called

Rings Without Zero Divisors:

there are no elements
Definition. A ring R is without zero divisors if
a,be B, which are n o n - z e r o s.t. ab =0, i.e.,
0, or b 0, or both a 0 and b 0. = =
ab 0 = a = = =

exist non-zero elements a and b such

On the other hand if in a ring R there
with zero divisors.
that ab 0, then R is said to be a ring
=

of all 2 x 2 matrices, whose elements are

Example 1. Suppose M is the ring
of matrices being the two ring
integers, the addition and multiplication
with zero divisors.
compositions. Then M is a ring
the zero element of this ring.
matrix O
The null =| i
0 s

are two non-zero elements of this ring, i.e.,

Now A

A 0, B * 0, we have

non-zero elements
of the ring is equal to the zero

Thus the product of two with zero divisors.

of ring. Therefore M is a ring
Ement that
Also it is interesting to note

BA=
0, but ba # 0.
that ab =
divisors. We
Thuin a ring R it is possible X6) is a ring with zero
2, 3, 4, 5), t6.
Dxample 2. The ring ({0, 1, non-zero elements is equal to
the
the product of two
4 =0, i.e.,
0, 3 xs
3 =

zero divisors. The product

element of the ring is a ring
without zero

p l e 3. The ring of integers to the z e r o integer.

oft 1on-zero integers cannot be equal
A g e r aStructures

235

a. lb+ (-b)} =a.0

a.b+a(-b) -0 by right distributive law and (i)
-a.b+ la .b+a.(-b)) = -a .b+0
adding-a.b on the left of both the sides]
(-a.b+a.b)+a.(-b) =-a .b by R2 and Ri3l
0+a.(-b) = -a .b by R14
a . ( - b) = - a .b (by R13
Hene the property.
(ii) (-a).(-5) =c.(- b) putting- a =c

-(c.b) by (ii
-I(-a).bl c = - al
- -(a.b)) by (i))
Hence the property.
(-a).(-b)-a.b.
by distributive law
(iv) (b-c)a +c.G=(b-c+c).a
(b+ 0).a c+(-c) =0
by distributive law]
(b-c).a+c.amb.a+0.a
b.a by (i)
an the right of both sides)
or (b-c).a+c.a -c.a=b.a-c.a (Adding-c.a
Hence the property.
(b-c).a =b.a-c.a subtraction.
distributive law holds for
Note. This property shows that the
(w) ab-c)-a.lb (-cl by distributive law)
a.b+a.(-c)
a.b-a.c
by (i
Hence the property.
a.(b-c)=a.b-a.c.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

numbers is not a ring with respect

Example 1. Show that the set N of natural
to addition and multiplication.
then (N, +) must form a group
Solution. If (N, J is a ring,
+, element e in N, such that
exists no identity
But we find that there
a e N.
a+e - a =e +a an additive group and consequently
natural numbers is not
ence the set N of
the N is not a
ring addition and
numbers under ordinary
set of real
Example 2. If R is the then that R is a
commutative ring with unit
mult ication of r a l numbers, shou
element. we have
of real numbers, under addition.
Solution. For the set R numbers
isclosed
a + b e R Va, be R, the set of real
R
(a+ +
b) + c + c), Va, b, cE
=a (b addition in R
associative
law holds for such that
e, the identity
element 0e R,
i
T i )h e r e exists an R.
0 + a Va e
+0 =a =
R, such that
a
element a e
iv) Foreach a e R, 3 an

a+(-a)
= 0 =( - a )+a.
236 Discrete Strucy
Va, b e R
(v) a +b =b + a addition in R.
commutative law holds for
ie., the
R2. a.be R Va, be R multiplication.
with respect to
L.e., the set R is closed
Rg(a.b).c=a.(b.c) Va,b,ceR
associative in R.
Le, the multiplication
composition is
+C.a Va, b, c e R
R4. a.(b +c) = a. b +a.c and (b +c) .a =b.a
as well as right distributive over addisi..
i.e., the multiplication is left inR
Rg. a.b=b.a Va.be R
commutative in R.
i.e., the multiplication is
Hence all the ring postulates are satisfied and (R, +,) is a commutativ.
ative ring
Also there exists an element 1 in R such that

1.a=a =a.1 Vae R.

with unit element.
Hence +, ) is a commutative ring
(R,
Example 3. Prove that the set C ofcomplex numbers iS a ring with resperth
also that it is commutative.
ordinary addition and multiplication. Prove
Solution. In the given set C of complex numbers of the forma +bi whem
andb are real numbers and i = y- 1, let its two elements be a t+ bji and a, +bi.

Then we have,
R . ) (a+b,i)+(aa +bgi) =(a, +ag)+ b1 +b) ie C, as (1 +a) andt6j+
are real numbers,
i.e., the closure property is satisfied for addition in C.
(ii) la +bi) +(a2 +bgi)) +(a3 + bgi)
i+ (ag+ bgi))
l(a ta) +61+b2)
- l a +ag)+agl+[(b1+b2)+ bal i

la+ (a2+ag))+ bj +(b2+ bz)} i [by associative lawin

( a+bi)+ [(a2+ ag) + (b2 + b3)il1
=
(a1 +b1i) + l(a2+ bpi) +(ag+ bgi))
(a +b), (a2 + bi), (ag +b)e
ie., the associative law holds for addition in complex numbers
(ii) There exists an identity element 0+ 0i in the set C, such that
( a t bi) + (0+0i) = (a +0) +(b1+0) i

=
(0 +a)+(0+b1) i
=(0+0i) + (a1 +b1i) V (a1 +bji) e C.
(iv) For each (a1 + bi) e C there exists an element

-a)+(-b) ie C, such that

(a +bi) +l(-a1+(-b)l i =0+ 0i.
Similarly we can show that
-a)+-b,) il + (a1+ bi) = 0 +Oi
ie., the additive inverse of each element in C exists.
 A l g e b r a i c S t r u c t u ,

237
(v (a+ b14) + (a2 t+ b2#) = («1 t+ag) +(b1+ ba) i

(a2+a)+ (b2+b,) i
=
(2+b2i) (aj + b1i) V (a1 +bji), (a2 + bgi) eC
i.e., the commutative law holds for addition in C.
a+b1i). (a2 *b2)=(1.a2-b1.b2) +(b1.ag +a1.b)ie C
( a +b1i), (a2 +bgi) e C, i=-1
ie., the set is closed with respect to multiplication.
can show that
Rg. We
a+ bi).(@2+62})) (a3 + bgi) = («1 +61i) l(a2 +bi) .(a3 + bgi
(a +bi), (a2 +bgi), (ag + bgi) eC
ie., the multiplication composition is associative in C.
R4. We can also easily show that
(a1+bi). (a2 +b2i) +(a3 + bgi))
=
(a1 +bi) (ag + bai) +(a1 + b1i) (a3 t .

bgi
and lag+bai) + (a3 +bgi)]. (a1+bi)

(a2+ bgi) (a1 + b1i) + (a3 +bgi) .(a1 +b1i) C

(a +bi), (a2 +bai), (a3 + bgi)
e

distributive over addition in C.

ie., the multiplication is left and right
Here 1=1+0i e C, is an element such that
(a1 +bi).(1+0i) =(a1 +bj4) =(+01). (1 +b19)
which means l ' is the unit element.
and hence (C, +, .) is a ring with unity.
Thus all the ring axioms are satisfied
multiplication is commutative also,
Further we can show that the operation of
i (a1+bji).
(a1 +b) a2 +bgi) =(a2+ bgi).
unit element.
commutative ring with
Hence (C, +, ) is a then evaluate (a + b) (c + d).
elements ofa ring R,
Example 4. Ifa, b, c, d
are

Solution. We have
(c +d) by right distributive law]
(a+b) (c +d) = a (c +d) +b
ad +bc + bd
by left distributive law]
ac +
+ ba + b, where
b e R then (a + b)* =a+ ab
Example 5. (a) Prove that ifa,
bywe mean xx.
Solution. We have
(a+b) =(a +b) (a +b) distributive law]
by right
(a +b) +b (a +6) law]
=a

(ba + bb)
by left distributive
=
(aa + ab) +

a + ab +
ba + b.
only if
that a ring
R is commutative, if and
Xample 5. (6) Prove
be R. R.G.PV. June 2007]
Va,
(a+b)= a+
2ab
ab ba, Va, be
R. +b,
R is commutativeie.,
=

olution. Firstly suppose

AlgebraiCS

239
Example 7. Prove that under addition
and multiplication
0.2.4, 6, 8) (mod 10) is a ring. Does it posses unity the set

Solution. The element?

composition tables for +10 and 10 are
2 4
t10 8
10
0 2 4 6 8
0 0 2 6 0 0 00 00
2 2 4 6 8 2 4 8 2
4 4 6 8 8 6 4 2
6 8 0 4 6 2 4 6 8
8 8 2 4 6 8 0 6 2 4
8
From the composition table for +10 we conclude that
R. () a e S, b e S = a +10be S,
ie. the set S is closed under the operation.
(ii) a t10 (b +10 ¢) = (a t10 b) *10 c, Va, b, ce S,

ie., the associative law holds for the operation +10 in S.

(ii) There exists an identity element 0 in S for the operation +10 Such that
a t10 0=a =0 *10a, Vae S.
iv) The inverses of 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 are 0, 8, 6, 4 and 2 respectively under the
operation t10
(v)a t10 b =b +10 a V a, be S,
i.e., the commutative law holds for the operation +10 in S.
Hence (S, +10) is an abelian group.

Again from the composition table for 10 we conclude that:

Ra a e S,b e S a 10b e S,
i.e., the set S is closed under the operation 10

aa 10(b.10 C) ==(a 10 b) 10c Va, b, ce S

least non-negative remainder obtained on dividing abc by 10,

i.e., the set S is associative for the operation 10

R. For all a, b, c e S, we have
a 10 (b +10 ) =a 10 b +cl,
remainder obtained on dividing (b + c) by 10,
Where [b +c] is least non-negative
10
=
la (b + c)] reduced mod
lab +ac
=
=(a 1 0 6) t10 (a 10)
lab] t1o lac)

e., the operation. 10 is left distributive

over
t10
Similarly we can show that
=(6 10 a) t1o (C 10 a)
bt10 C) 10a over tjo
i.e. t h e operation 10
is right distributive
S
a10b=b j0a Va, be
in S.
the operation 10
t h e commutative law holds for
240
so (S, +10, 1o) is
tructu
satistfied and
.

Hence all the ring postulates

are

find that
commutati
ring composition
table for 10 We

Moreover from the S.

Va e
10a
1 0 6=a=6
'10) exists and is 6.
a

element right (S, t10»

of the
The unit
RING
S 2.28. SUBRING OF A be a non-empty subset of R
S
Definition. Let (R, +, )
be a ring and
forms a ring with respect to th
of the ring R if it independently
a subring
operations in R. imn
subrings are called
proppet
The subsets (0) and R which a r e obviously
lled
it exists, is called
prope
aa Dh
of R. Any other subring, if
trivial subrings
non-trivial subring.
is a subring ofthe ring
(R, +, -) where R and I are thehset.s
Example 1. (I, +, )
of real numbers and integers respectively.
even integers,
then (E, +,) is a subringo
Example 2. If E is the set of
while the set of odd integers cannot hes
ring (I, +, ) where I is the set integers
of
addition.
subring of I because it is not closed under

ring. Since (mI, +, ) is also

a ring Vm(#0) ¬ l a
Example 3. 1, +,) is a
mlcI, therefore (mI, t,) is a subring ofthe ring (, +, )
and (C, +, ).
Example 4. (Q,+, ) is a subring of (R, +,) numbe
over the set of rational
Example 5. The set of all (n x n) matrices
of real numbers.
a subring of the ring of (n xn) matrices over the set
Conditions for a Subring
Theorem 1. A subset S of the ring (R, +, -) is a subring if and only if
(i) a e S, be S * a-be S Va,be S,
and (ii) a e S,beS ^ a.beS Va, be S.
Proof. Let us suppose that (S, +,) is a subring of the ring (R, +,), tner
(S, +,) is itself a ring. Hence (S, +) is an abelian group.
Therefore a, be S a, -b e S
every element of S has additive inverstitio
a+(-b) e S S i s closed w.rt.addm
a -b e S
Thus condition (i) is satisfied.
Again S is a ring (S,) is a semi group.
Sis closed w.r.t. multiplication
ab e S Va,be S.
Thus condition (ii) is satisfied. prescri
Converse. Let S be a
non-empty subset of the ring R such u
conditions are satisfied.
ing
Now to prove S is a subring of R, which means to show that s i
R. In condition (i), taking a
=b, we have
a, a e S a -a e S
 iscrete Stry
244 Strua
DOMAIN
S 2.29. INTEGRAL called an Integral Domain it
) is
Definition. Aring (R, +,
commutative,
(i) it is
element,
ii) it is with unit
divisors.
without z e r o
and (ii) it is
defines an integral domain
if the followin.
wing prabi
Thus a system (R, t, )
are satisfied
abelian group.
I. (R, +) is a n satisfied, i.e.,
Closure property is
11 a+beR Va, b e R.
ae R, beR
Addition is associative, i.e,
I12 (b+c) + Va, b, c e R.
(a+6)+c = a
Additive identity 0 e Rsuch that
I13 Vae R.
a +0=a
for every a e
R such that
3 inverse element
'14 an
=0
a+(-a) =(-a) +a
e R.
-a eRis called the additive inverse of a
I15. Addition is commutative, i.e.,
a+b=b+a Va, be R.

I2. R,.) is a semi-abelian group with unity.

I21. Closure law for multiplication is satistied, i.e.,
a e R, b e R a.be R V a, be R.
I22. Multiplication is associative, i.e.,
(a.b).c=a.(b.c) Va, b, c e R.
Iag. Multiplication is commutative, ie.,
a.b b.a Va,be R.
I24. 3 a unit element 1e R such that
a.1=1.a=a Va e R.
I. Multiplication is distributive from left and right, i.e.,
a.(b+c) =a.b+a.c Va, b, c e R
and (b+c).a =b.a+c.a Va, b, ce R.
I Ris
without zero divisors, i.e.,
a.b=0 a=0 or b =0.
thes y s t
Example 1. The system (1, +, ) is an integral domain
a commutative ring withunity. It also contains becausthe
usethepri

of two non-zero integers is always different no zero divisors becau

from zero. domain n

Example 2. The ring of rational numbers

(Q, +, ) is an ine
zero element and unit element.
wilh

Example3 The ring of real number integral domain

element and unit element. (R, +, ) is an
integra
Example 4. The set I [W2] of real a+b adt

a,b e I, i.e., ( N21 t, ) 18 an

numbers of the f o r m dinary

integral domain with respect t

 a i g e b r s iS i r u c t u r e s

245
tiplication
n d multiplication its zero element and
unit element are 0+0v2 and 1+0v2
resectively

nle5. The ring of complex numbers (C, +, ) is an integral domain

ple 6. The set I u] of complex numbers of the form a+ bi where
Examp

i e . , ( (), +, ) 18 an integral domain with zero element 0+Oi and unit

be
t1Oi
ement
under
1 Oi u n compositions addition and multiplication.
+

demarks: (1) The set N of natural number does not form an integral
domain, because (N, +) is not an abelian group.
(2) The system (21, +, ) is although a commutative ring without zero divisor
tis the set of even integers). Yet it is not an integral domain because the set 21
not possess the unit element in it.
ioes
229. (A) SUB-DOMAIN

Definition. Let (D,+, ) be an integral domain A subset Dof D is called

sub-domain of (D, +, )if(D, +. ) itaelfin an integral domain.

Example 1. (1,, ) in a sub domain of the integral domain (Q,+, )
Example 2. (Q+, ) is a sub-domain of the integral domain (R, +t,)
the minimal integral
Remark. The integral domain d,+,) is called
contains no sub-domain
domain because it
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

of integers I with
integral domain. Prove that the
set
Example 1. Define an
(d, +, ) is an integral domain.
rspect to ordinary addition and multiplication; ie.,
domain see 529. Again in Ex. 1 of
Solution. For the definition of integral
commutative ring with unity
have proved that (1,+, ) is a
$29 we
Now, if a, be I, then
ab 0 either a = 0 or b 0.
=

non-zero integer
cannot be zero. Therefore, I is
In other words, the product of
without zero divisors
is an integral doman
Hence by definition, d, +, )
numbers is a n integral domain.
Xample 2. Show that the
set of complex numbers. Then
la ib a, be R) be the set of complex
Solution. Let C number.
numbers is a complex
T h e sum of two complex
'+is closed in C.
numbers obeys associative
law.
) The addition of complex
is associative in C
C, 3 0 = 0 + i0 e
ibe
C such that
ii) For
each a +
(0+ a)+i(0 +6)
(0+ 0)+ (a ib)
=
+
a+ i b

(a+ib) + (0+i0)=a
+ib. identity in C
Similarly, element; ie.,
additive

0 + i 0 is the C such that

zero

3(-a) +i(- b)e

roreach a + ib E C, +i lb +(-b)]
i(- b)] [a + (-a)l =

a+i6+I(-a) +
i0 0. = 0+
=
 246 Struc
+a +ib =
0.
Similarly, [(-a) + i(-b)] of each
element in C exists,
The additive inverse is commutative
numbers
addition of two
complex
(v) The
commutative in C. is a complex n
is numbers

(vi) The multiplication of two complex

amber.
i s closed in C. numbers obeys associative la.
of complex law.
(vii) The multiplication
' i s associative in C. law of multiplication
obeys distributive
o.

(viii)Complex numbers
'over +' is true in
C. additi
Distributive law of'.
numbers obeys commutative las
(ix) The multiplication of complex law.
'is commutative on C.
e Csuch that
(x) For each a +ib e C,31=1+ i0
=(a + ib). 1.
1.(a +ib) =a + ib
1 is multiplicative identity in C.
(xi) For each pair a + ib, c + ide C,
(ac bd) + i (bc +ad) =
0 +i0
(a +ib). (c + id) 0
-

a c - bd = 0
bc + ad = 0
and
Now multiplying (1) with a and (2) by b and then adding, we get
(a+b)c =0.
Similarly, (a +b ) d= 0.
Now from equations (3) and (4),
a =b = 0 or C =d= 0
a+ib = 0 or c+id =0.
thereis no zero divisor in (C, +,..
Hence (C,t, ) is an integral domain.
Example 3. 1fa and b are any integers, then prove that the set of all numoe
ofthe form a+bv2 is an integral domain with respect to ordinary additiona
multiplication.
Solution. Let R =
la +bv2:a, be I). Clearly R is a ring with respa
ordinary addition and multiplication.
Ifa +bv2, ag +bav2 eR, then
(G+bv2). (a2+ bav2) =(aj42 +2b,b2) + (a1bg + agb) V2
(a201 +2bgb1) + (a2b1 +bpa) V2
=

because in I, aja2 =0p

the operation"
(ag +bgV2). (a1+b12).
is commutative in
R.
Again, 1=1+0v2 e R such
that
.
1.(a +bv2) =a +bv2 Va+b2 e R.
lis the unity element in
R.
Again, if x1, *2 ¬ R, then

that is, R is without

*1.2=0> eitherx =0 or x2 =
0,
zero divisors.
A l g e b r a i cS f r u c t u r e s

247
Exam cample 5. The foltowing statement in 'true' or
anintegral domajn. false': "the set (0, 1) (mod 2)
is o Solution. LetD= {0, 1. The composition tables are the
following:
+2 0
0
0
0
0
We observe that:
.(D, t ) is an abelian group whose additive identity element is 0.
Le (D, 2) is a semi-abelian group with unity element1.

i s distributive from left and right, that is, if a, b, c e D, then

a 2
b+2 c) =(a 2 b)+2 (a20)
and 6t2 c) a =(b *2a) +2 C *2a) Va, b, c e D.

D i s without zero divisors, because

ab 0 eithera =0 or b = 0.
Hence the given setD= {0, 1} (mod 2) is an integral domain; that is, the given
statement is true.

$ 2.30. FIELD
called field ifit :
ring (F, +,) with at least two elements is
a
Definition. A
i) is commutative,
Cii) has unity, inverse.
element in F possesses multiplicative
(ii) is such that each n o n - z e r o
defines a field if the following postulates are satisfied
Thus a system (F, +, -)
F. (F, +) is an abelian group.
ie.,
11. Closure property is satisfied,
a e F,b eF ^ a+be F Va, be F.
12 Addition is associative, i.e.,
b, c e F.
+c) Va,
(a +b) + c =a+(b
13-3 an additive identity 0
e such that F
Va e F.
a+0 =a
F3 an inverse
-
a E F, i.e.,
14 For every a e
Vae F
0
+(-a) =(-a) +a
=

where Fis additive

-

a e
inverse of a eF.
i.e,
15:Addition is commutative,
+b=b+a Va, be F. elements of
a
where F is
the set of all non-zero

commutative
group,
i sa
multiplication, i.e.,
satisfied for
O S u r e property
is a.beF Va, b e F.
a e Fbe F
ie.,
22. ultiplication is associative,

b,ceF.
(a.b).c =a.(b.c) Va,
 te Struen
248
Fsuch that
F23.3 an element 1 (* 0) E
a.1=a Vae P
element.
o r identity
Fis called
unity
where 1 (# 0) E
such that
element a 'e F
F3 an
F24. Every a(* 0)
¬

a . a =1 (unity)
multiplicative
inverse ofa e P.
a e Fis called the
where i.e.,
Multiplicative is commutative,
F25.
a.b=b.a b e F. Va,
V a, b, c e F.
Fg. Distributive law holds, i.e., for
(b+c) =a.b+a.b.
[left distributive la
Fg1 a.

(b+c).a =b.a+C.a. right distributive l.

32 numbers with operation additio
Example 1. The set of rational
multiplication, i.e., (Q, +,) is a field.
Example 2. The set of real numbers operations addition a
with operations addition.

multiplication, i.e., (R, +, ) is a field.

Example 3. The set of complex numbers with operations addition
multiplication, ie., (C, +, ,) is a field.
2.30. (A) SUBFIELD
Definition. Anon-empty subset P of the field (F, +, -) is said to be a subfe:
ofFif F' is closed with respect to the operations of addition and multiplication in?
and F itself is a field for these operations.
Example 1. The field (Q, +,) of rational numbers is a subfield ofthefe
(C,+, ) of complex numbers.
Example 2. The field (R,+,) of real numbers is a subfield of thefe
(C,+,) of complex numbers.
2.30. (B) DIVISION RING OR SKEW FIELD
Definition. A ringR with at least two elements is called a skew neld
division ring if
(i) it is with unity,
(ii) is such that each non-zero
element possesses multiplicative inverse
Thus a commutative division
But a division ring is a field ifit is
ring is a field. Everv field is also a division
also commutative.
S 2.30. (C) SOME THEOREMS
Theorem 1. Every field is an IR.G.P.V. June 20
Proof. Since a field F is a integral domain.
show that every field is an commutative ring with unity,
ty, therefore
inorder
divisors.
theretos no
integral domain, we should show that h a s
n ozen

a fieu
Let a, b be any elements
of Fwith a # 0 such that .b= 0.
Since a
a#03ale F
Therefore ab =0 a ' (ab)
=a*lo
(a*a) a =0 l b ya s s o c i a t i v .
A l g e b r u i cS t r u c t u r e s 251

ow 42 cannot be put in the form bv2 where b is a rational. Therefore

42 e
AThus A is not closed with respect to multiplication. Therefore (A, +, )
A. T
is not

a ring.
with respect to
GLet E be the set of all even integers. Then E is a ring
is a commutative
ition and multiplication of integers. Also the multiplication
addit
of non-zero even integers
nosition. E is without zero divisors, since the product
element of this ring. Since the integral
nnot be equal to zero which is the zero
cann

therefore & is a ring without unity.

1 E, the unit
domain if we does not require the existence of
E will be an integTal
integral domain.
element for
an
exist.
field since the multiplicative identity does not
But E is not a
0 e N, therefore the
Let be the set of positive integers. Since the integer
(ii)
does not exist. So T is not a ring.
additive identity a + bv2, with a
and bas
set of numbers the of form
Example 2. Show that the
rational numbers is a field.
Solution. Let b2:a, b e QI.QN2] =
{la +
e Q.
e Q [N21. Then a, b1, a2, ba
Let a +b v2 and ag +bgv2
+ ag) +(b1 +bg)
V2 e Q{N2]
We have (a1 +bjv2) + (a2 bgv2) (a1
=
+

: a1 +az, b1 + ba e

(ab2 +agb1) V2 e Q N2]

+bv2) (ag + bgv2) (a1a2 2b1b2)+
+ =

Also (a
addition and multiplication.
is closed with respect to that addition and
real numbers and w e know
All the elements of Q N2]
a r e
commutative compositions
in the set
associative as well a s
are both
multiplication
of real numbers.
identity.
0+0v2 is the additivethen (-a) + (-b) V2 e QI2]
and we have
Again ifa +bv2 e Q N2],
-a) + (-b) V2] + (a +b2) =0 + Ov2.
additive inverse.
each element of QV2 possesses multiplication is distributive with respect
real numbers,
Purther in the set of
to addition.
and
Again 1+02 e QIV2] +bv2) (1 +OV2).
(1+02) (a +b\2) =a +bv2 =(a
multiplicative identity. element of the
. 1+02is the unity. The zero

commutative ring with

(Q V2], +, ) is a
Thus unit element is 1
+0V:
ingis 0+ Ov2 and the element of Q I2)
possesses

field if each non-zero

Now (QV2], +, .) will

be a
* 0 or b 0.
multiplicative inverse. ring, i.e., at least a
element of this
non-zero
Let a +bv2 be any a - bv2 a-b2

1 bv2) a2- 262

Then a+bv2 (a + bv2) (a is
then
-

cannot
non-zero,
we

numbers a
and b
rational
of the
OWif at least
one

have
a-2h= 0, i.e., a=2h.
 252 ete
rete Siructu
- b are both rational number and at least

a-22
and2 - 2 2 one thema
not zero0.
a - 2 is a non-zero element of Q V2.
a2-2b2 and
multiplicative inverse of a + bv2.
Hence (Q [V21, +, -) is a field.
numbers I [V2J of the form
Example 3. Prove that the set of
a + Ai
and b as integers is an integral domain with respect to ordinary addi.
addition an
multiplication. Is it a field ?
Solution. We can easily verify that the given system (I lV2
commutative ring with unity element 1+0v2. Also 0 +Ov2 is the zera ele
this ring. Now in order to prove that this ring is an integral domain, we s
houl
prove that this ring is without zero divisors.
Let a + bV2 and c + dv2 be any two elements of this ring. Then

(a+bv2) (c +dV2) =0 +0V2.

ac +2bd=0 and be +ad =0
either a=0 and b =0 or c
=0 and d = 0.
(a+bv2)(¢ + d\2) =0+0V2.
eithera+ bv2 =0 c+dv2 =0.
or

Thus the given ring ( N2], +, ) is without zero divisors. Therefore its a
integral domain. But it is not a field. Obviously 5+3v2 is a non-zero elementof this
ring. Its inverse is as below :

1 5-32 =6-32)
5+32 (5+32) (5-312) 6
which is not an element of this ring.
Example 4. Give an example of a skew field which is not a fiela.
Solution. Let M be the set of all 2 x 2 matrices of the form
a+ib C+id
-c+id a-ib
where a, b, c, d are arbitrary real numbers.
We can easilyprove that the set M is tition sD
a ring with respect to a0u
multiplication of matrices. The zero
matrix
0+ib
- 0+i0
0+i0
0-i0
is the zero element of M.
Thematrix1+i0 0+i0 1.
-0+i0 1-i0 18 the multiplicative identity.
Nowlet A= +ib C+id d o

-c+id a ib De any non-zero element of Mi.e,

not equal to zero.