THUONGMAI UNIVERSITY

FALCUTY OF ENGLISH
LINGUISTIC DIVISION
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ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: DIMENSIONS OF WORD MEANING
Course: Semantics
Lecturer: Nguyen Thi Thuy Chung
Group: 05
Class: 242_ENTH0911_07

Hà Nội, 2/2025
 MEMBERS OF GROUP 5

No Name Student ID Evaluation

1 Trần Ngọc Linh

2 Trần Thùy Linh

3 Trương Thị Thùy Linh

4 Nguyễn Thị Minh

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Contents
1. Introduction.....................................................................................................3
2. Naming.............................................................................................................3
3. Denotation, Reference and Sense...................................................................3
3.1. Denotation and reference.........................................................................3
3.2. Sense and reference..................................................................................3
4. The change and development of meaning.....................................................3
4.1. Definition of semantic change.................................................................3
4.2. Causes of semantic change.......................................................................3
4.3. Nature of semantic change.......................................................................3
5. Transference of meaning.............................................................................3
5.1. Metaphor...................................................................................................3
5.1.1. Definition............................................................................................3
5.1.2. The difference between metaphor and simile.................................3
5.1.3. Some basis of metaphor transference..............................................4
5.1.4. Classification of metaphor................................................................5
5.2. Metonymy..................................................................................................7
5.2.1. Definition............................................................................................7
5.2.2. Metonymy vs. Metaphor...................................................................7
5.2.3. Basis of the transference...................................................................7
5.2.4. Cases of metonymy............................................................................8

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 1. Introduction
In English, words are not always used directly or literally, and sometimes they
might have more than just one meaning. To define and clarify the meaning of the
words have never been an easy task for linguists. There have been many attempts
designed to define what the meanings of the word are. Traditionally, linguists have
referred to the meaning of words in two parts that are denotation and connotation. For
example, when someone gives you a rose, we can see that a rose in denotative
meaning is a red rose with a green stem, but in the connotative meaning, it is a symbol
of passion and love – so when they give you a rose, it means that they love you. But
sometimes we don‘t pay attention to that and sometimes we misunderstand and get
confused.
However, linguists also realize the need to distinguish what a word or
expression denotes from what they can be used to refer to, that is, to tell the difference
between denotation and reference. There is also another dimension to the lexical
meaning of words such as “man, star”, that is traditionally called sense.
Studying semantic in general and the components of word meaning, in
particular, are necessary for students of English so that we can understand and use
them more effectively. This study will be analyzing the different layers of word
meaning and discuss how the meaning of words can change and develop.
2. Naming
Human beings name things in their environment. The name helps to
distinguish and identify what the thing is and is essential to communicate with a fellow
human. In Plato’s Cratylus, he stated that the word is a signifier that stands for an
object. While this idea works very well with nouns which are usually used to denote
objects, it doesn’t work well with nouns denoting abstract concepts such as love, hate,
and anger. Moreover, when dealing with other parts of speech such as prepositions,
adjectives, articles, etc, it is difficult to extend this theory to include these parts of
speech. For example, it is almost impossible to name an action like “flowing” because
one can visualize the image of the river flowing but the issue of naming “flowing” is
almost out of the question.
Granted this theory is workable in some situations, it is necessary to
distinguish two kinds of worlds to account for the occurrence of such words as

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unicorn, goblin, fairy. One is the real world containing those objects as we know them
and the imaginary world made up of things such as unicorn, ogre, fairy.
3. Denotation, Reference and Sense
3.1. Denotation and reference
The differences between denotation and reference are that denotation is the
ability of a word to identify all those things or objects that are covered by it while
reference is the relationship between a word and what it refers to. Referring is what
speakers do and denoting is a property of words.
For example: “The fat man is waiting outside”.
In this sentence, “the fat man” will evoke the image of an overweight man
which is the denotative meaning of the words. However, when put in a specific
context, such as when the president of the USA is talking, we can understand that the
fat man here refers to Donald Trump. When put in a specific context like this, the
denotative meaning of the word “fat” hasn’t changed because the president of the USA
can be correctly described as “fat” and the only thing that changes is who the speaker
is referring to, a man in general or the president of the USA.
For example: “ The cat is sleeping on the table”.
In this sentence, the denotation of the phrase "the cat" refers to all cats in
general—any four-legged animal that likes to catch mice. This is the general
characteristic of the word "cat". However, if this sentence is spoken in a specific
context, such as when the speaker is pointing at their pet cat named Miu sleeping on
the table, then "the cat" no longer refers to cats in general but specifically to a
particular cat named Miu. In summary, the denotation of "the cat" includes all cats in
the world, but the reference can change depending on the context, such as when the
speaker is referring to a specific cat.
As you can see, depending on the context, a word can refer to different things
and have different meanings, however, no matter what the context is, a word will have
the same denotation meaning. This is why the denotation of a word or expression is
invariant and utterance independent while the reference is variable and utterance
dependent. By making a reference, a speaker wants to indicate a particular thing in a
particular situation, not a thing in general.
3.2. Sense and reference

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 Another aspect of word meaning is the sense of the word. While the reference
deals with the relationships between language and the word, sense deals with the
relationship inside language itself.
For example: “Watch out for the dog”.
In this sentence, “the dog” is used to refer to the actual dog in the real world.
When making this utterance, the speaker wants to refer to the dog in the real world that
the listener has to watch out for. However, what if the person who heard this utterance
has not seen the actual dog yet, then they will first form a mental image of what a dog
is inside their head, which is possible thanks to the sense of the word “dog”.
The sense of a word is the mental representation of that word, an abstract
concept, and not a physical object while the reference of a word is the physical
representation of that word in the real world. Sense and reference are generally
interdependent because one would not know what object the word is referring to
without knowing the sense of that word first.
For example: “Watch out for the tiger”.
If the person who listens to this utterance has not seen what a tiger is which
means they don’t know the sense of the word “tiger” then they won’t be able to
understand what the speaker wants to refer to.
4. The change and development of meaning
4.1. Definition of semantic change
Semantic change is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word
usage usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the
original usage. In diachronic linguistics, semantic change is a change in one of the
meanings of a word. Every word has a variety of senses and connotations, which can
be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the extent that cognates across space
and time have very different meanings. The study of semantic change can be seen as
part of etymology, onomasiology, semasiology, and semantics.
For example:
“Right”: The word “right” originally meant “correct” or “true.” Over time, it
also came to mean “morally good” or “just.”

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 “Meat”: Originally, “meat” referred to any kind of food, not just animal flesh.
Over time, its meaning narrowed to specifically refer to flesh from animals used as
food.
4.2. Causes of semantic change
The factors accounting for semantic changes may be roughly subdivided into
two groups: Extra-linguistic and Linguistic causes.
+ Extra-linguistic causes.
By extra-linguistic causes we mean various changes in the life of the speech
community, changes in economic and social structure, changes in ideas, scientific
concepts, way of life and other spheres of human activities as reflected in word
meanings. Although objects, institutions, concepts, etc. change in the course of time in
many cases the soundform of the words which denote them is retained but the meaning
of the words is changed.
For example: New inventions and technologies often require new words or
cause existing words to take on new meanings. Consider the word "mouse," which
originally referred to a rodent. With the advent of the computer mouse, the word
acquired a new, related meaning. The rise of the internet has also led to a massive
expansion of vocabulary and semantic change
+ Linguistic causes.
Some changes of meaning are due to what may be described as purely
linguistic causes, factors acting within the language system. The commonest form
which this influence takes is the so-called ellipsis. In a phrase made up of two words
one of these is omitted and its meaning is transferred to its partner.
For example, The word "nice" originally meant "foolish" or "silly" in Middle
English. Over time, "nice" was frequently used in phrases like "a nice fool," "a nice
simpleton," etc. The word "fool" or "simpleton" (or similar negative descriptors) were
often dropped (the ellipsis), leaving just "nice”. Because "nice" was so often associated
with these negative terms, even when those terms were omitted, the meaning of "nice"
began to shift. It started to take on a slightly ironic or condescending tone. Eventually,
this ironic usage faded, and "nice" evolved to its modern meaning of pleasant,
agreeable, or kind.

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 Another linguistic cause is discrimination of synonyms which can be
illustrated by the semantic development of a number of words.
For example, The words "hound" and "dog" were originally synonyms, but
"hound" came to be used to refer specifically to a dog used for hunting.
In this case, the existence of the synonym "dog" led to the narrowing of the
meaning of "hound." ⇒This is an example of discrimination of synonyms because the
presence of one synonym caused the meaning of the other synonym to change.
4.3. Nature of semantic change.
Generally speaking, a necessary condition of any semantic change, no matter
what its cause, is some connection, some association between the old meaning and the
new. There are two kinds of association involved as a rule in various semantic
changes:
+ Change of evolvement of the denotation:
 Meaning extended: more general or more inclusive than its historically
earlier form.
For example, the word "bird" used to refer only to small songbirds, but now it
refers to any member of the class Aves.
 Meaning narrowed: the meaning is specialized, less general or less
inclusive than its historically earlier form.
For example, the word "meat" used to refer to any type of food, but now it
refers only to animal flesh.
+ Change of evolvement of the connotation:
 Degradation of meaning (deterioration): the meaning of the word
becomes more negative or less favorable.
E.g: In Old English, "silly" meant "happy" or "blessed." Over time, the word's
meaning gradually shifted to become more negative, eventually coming to mean
"foolish" or "stupid.”
 Elevation of meaning: the meaning of a word becomes more positive or
favorable.
E.g: Nice": In the past, “nice” meant “foolish” or “silly.” Today, it is
commonly used to mean “pleasant” or “kind.”
5. Transference of meaning

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 5.1. Metaphor
5.1.1. Definition
Metaphor is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on
similarity between these two.
In other words, we call one object by the name of another because we compare
these objects and find some common features between them.
Example: That woman is a witch.
+ Target domain: that woman- ugly, cruel
+ Source domain: witch - having magic powers and doing evil things.
+ Similarity: unpleasant, cruel
5.1.2. The difference between metaphor and simile

Criteria Metaphor Simile

Feature Implicit comparison Explicit comparison

Form Direct: having no elements of Indirect: having elements of

comparison comparison (like; as)

Exampl A wire is a road for electrons. A good book is like a good meal.
e Explanation: Explanation:
In this metaphor, the electrical "A good book": A good book can
wire is likened to a “road” on give the reader a sense of
which the “vehicles” (electrons) satisfaction, providing wisdom and
move. When we say that the wire emotions, just as a good meal gives
is a road for electrons, we are physical satisfaction. "A good
saying that the wire provides a meal": A good meal is something
medium for electrons to move that makes the eater feel full,
from one place to another (via satisfied and comfortable, just as a
electric current). good book can give mental
satisfaction.

5.1.3. Some basis of metaphor transference

 Shape:
E.g: Because the nose is a sharpened body part, it is possible to call the
pointed parts of things that are the nose: the bow of a boat, the tip of a knife, the
needle of a needle, etc.
 Position:

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 Position: especially widely used are the metaphoric meaning of word denoting
parts of the human body: the manner of the parts of the human body are transferred to
other objects.
E.g: foot is the lowest part of the human body -> foot of the mountain: the
lowest position of the mountain.
 Movement:
E.g: She wormed her way through the crowd.
(Worm normally refers to any kind of animal with activities of slithering or
crawling through tight spaces. The use of "worm" evokes an image of something
moving slowly, with persistence and perhaps in a subtle, sneaky manner.
 Function:
He is the backbone of the team": Here, the function of the backbone in the
body (providing support and structure) is metaphorically transferred to the person,
highlighting their importance and reliability.
"The heart of the city": The heart is metaphorically associated with the central,
life-giving function of an organism. When used for a place, it indicates the center or
vital part of a city.
"The engine of progress": The engine serves a driving function in machinery,
and in this metaphor, it's used to represent the force that propels forward progress or
development.
 Color: orange, rose, pink, green …
Red: Often used to symbolize passion, love, anger, or danger. For instance, "a
red-hot temper" conveys extreme anger, while "a red rose" symbolizes romantic love.
Black: Frequently associated with death, evil, mystery, or negativity. For
example, "a black cloud of despair" evokes a sense of gloom and hopelessness.
White: Symbolizes purity, innocence, or simplicity. "A white lie" is a harmless
or small untruth, while "the white dove" represents peace.
 Size:
A giant in the industry": Here, size (the "giant") is used to convey someone’s
great influence or dominance within their field.
"A small matter": The metaphor of size is used to show that the matter in
question is insignificant or unimportant.

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 "The elephant in the room": The elephant's enormous size serves as a
metaphor for an obvious issue or problem that everyone is aware of but avoids
discussing.

5.1.4. Classification of metaphor

 Living metaphor:
Definition:
Living metaphor is a word used in unusal, novel meaning and metaphor is felt
as such.
E.g: She lent wings to his imagination.
Lent wings: The use of “wings” is a very powerful and vivid image. Wings in
this context are not only a physical image but also a symbol of freedom, the ability to
fly high, far, and without limits. This makes the imagination of the character in this
sentence more vivid and powerful.
Example 2:
Peace is our fortress.
Meaning of living metaphor:
Peace as a fortress: This vivid metaphor does not simply say that peace is good
or precious, but suggests that peace is something that needs to be protected and
fortified, just as a fortress protects those within it from danger.
The stability of peace: Peace is depicted as a fortress that is able to protect a
society or a community from external threats. This image helps the reader feel that
peace is not something that is easy or easy to lose, but needs to be protected and
maintained.
 Faded metaphor:
Definition: Faded metaphor is the one which lost its freshness because of long
use and became habitual.
E.g:
Good qualifications aren’t always the key to success.
Key to success: The image of the "key to success" is a familiar metaphor and
has become so common that it has become a faded metaphor. Initially, the "key" may
have been understood as a clear means to open the door to success. However, over
time, this usage has become too familiar and blurred in meaning, losing some of its

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sharpness and vividness. Good qualifications: The phrase "good qualifications" (good
education or skills) is a factor that many people believe is the "key" to achieving
success, such as having a university degree or a professional certificate. However, this
sentence sends a message that education is not always the decisive factor for success.
 Dead metaphor:
Definition: Dead metaphor is the word which has lost its direct meaning and is
used only figuratively.
E.g: I’m open to criticism.
"Open to criticism": This metaphor uses "open" to talk about accepting or
being willing to receive criticism or opinions from others. However, due to the use of
"open" in many different contexts (such as "open to new ideas", "open to change"), it
has become a dead metaphor, meaning that the image no longer creates a strong or
vivid impression.
5.2. Metonymy.
5.2.1. Definition.
Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another with which it is
associated.
In other words, instead of the name of one object or notion, we use the name
of another because these objects are associated and closely related.
E.g: The White House announced a press conference for four o’clock Sunday.
(The White House refers to the American president)
England decides to keep check on immigration. (England refers to the
government.)
The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen refers to written words, and sword to
military force.)
The Oval Office was busy with work. (The Oval Office is a metonymy, as it
stands for people who work in the office.)
5.2.2. Metonymy vs. Metaphor.

Metonymy Metaphor

Metonymy is based on Metaphor is based on similarity.

contiguity.

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 E.g: Her voice was music to his E.g: The Crown had absolute power in the
ears. Middle Ages.

5.2.3. Basis of the transference.

Material, casual or conceptual relation
 Place-for- institution
E.g: After the protests, maybe Washington will listen to the voters.
=> Washington(place) refers to the US government (institution)
 Thing-for-perception
E.g: My brother was just released from the big house.
=> The big house - to refer to prison, this is American slang and also
American perception.
 Object- for- possessor
E.g: Look lively, the top brass are coming for an audit today.
=> Brass - used in place of high-ranking officials
 Part-for- whole
E.g: Can you give me a hand carrying this box up the stairs?
=> Hand- for help, the hand here refers to the person who wants to help.
 Place- for- event
E.g: Dien Bien Phu marked the defeat of the French army.
=> Dien Bien Phu is a place where the fierce battle between the Vietnamese
army and the French army occurred and we forced the French army to surrender.
5.2.4. Cases of metonymy
 Name of parts of human body as symbol
Examples: Tell me about his warm heart.
A "warm heart" refers to a very emotional man who always cares about others.
Perfect choice, you have a good eye.
“A good eye” shows that this person can be very smart or professional on a
job.
 Name of container instead of thing contained.
Examples: He drank the whole cup.

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 Word: “cup” with original use: container shaped like a bowl usually with a
handle, used for drinking tea, coffee, etc but with metonymic sense, it refers to water
in the cup.
 The concrete is used instead of abstract.
Example: He had come to the end of the path of a lifetime.
The end of the road is not only about the end of a road that people go to
everyday but about death.
 The materials are used for the things made of the materials.
Examples: Could you lend me that glass?
Glass is a hard and transparent material and according to metonymy sense, it is
a container made of glass.
There is silk in the wardrobe. Silk refers to a dress or towel. Silk is a material
used for making clothes …
 The name of the author instead of his work.
Examples:
I really like reading Nam Cao
=> Nam Cao is an author of Vietnam. And this refers to his works.
I often listen to Beethoven.
=> Beethoven is a famous musician and he has many beautiful songs and this
Beethoven refers to his songs.
 Part for the whole and vice versa
Example:
The team needs some new blood if it is going to win next season.
=> New blood - used in place of new people, fresh ideas.
We live on the same roof.
=> Roof refers to houses.
 Items of clothing instead of the one who wears them:
E.g: She’s always running after the T-shirt. => T-shirt refers to the man/ woman
who wears it.
 Symbol to refer to representative
It seems like people will do whatever Hollywood says is cool. Hollywood - to
refer to the film industry.

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  Spatial relation
Example: He was elected chair of the city council. Chair is the position of being
in charge of the meeting or a committee. But here, it refers to the person who holds the
position of being in charge of a meeting or a committee.
 Causal relation
Example: Fear of failure was bred into him at an early age. Fear mean danger
(original use). The bad feeling that you have when you are in danger.
 Geographical relation
Examples:
Hanoi won the match yesterday. Hanoi is name of city, but it refers to a sport
team.
 Function relation
E.g: He penned a letter to the local paper.
Pen normally is an instrument used for writing with ink but here, it refers to write
something.

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