Mass Media & Communication

Radio
Unit 3

Compiled by Prof. Akash Purswani

Writing for Radio
Radio writing is different from any other kind of writing. It is also true that radio writing is more
difficult and challenging than other kinds of writing. This is so because radio is an aural medium.
Further, even if we know the fundamentals of the appropriate language for radio, the creative
challenges for writing still persist. The language for children’s programme cannot be the same as
that of a youth programme; and the language for rural programme will be entirely different than the
language of any literary programme. Another issue is the absolute necessity to remain within the
time duration allotted for the programme. Moreover, you have to deliver a powerful message or
convince the audience about a product through spoken words only. The writing also varies according
to the format. The craft of writing a talk will be entirely different from writing a radio play. Keeping
all these things in mind, we shall try to learn some basic characteristics of radio writing in this unit.

Radio writing - challenges of the medium

Although you have understood the basic nature of radio as a medium, it is necessary to know certain
essential facts before we venture into radio writing.

If you go to watch a movie in a cinema hall, you purchase a ticket and keep sitting in the darkness,
not doing anything else except watching the movie. Similarly, while reading a book it is essential to
devote your whole attention to the reading process. But, just imagine how many of us listen to radio
while doing nothing else. Most of the radio listeners are engaged in some other simultaneous
activities as well.

While listening to radio, someone may be driving a car, a housewife may be cooking in the kitchen, a
student may be solving a mathematics problem, a farmer may be tilling his land, a shopkeeper may
be attending to his customers and so on. Therefore, the radio writer has to shoulder a double
responsibility. Firstly, from the very beginning of the programme, by sheer magic of his/her words
he/ she has to attract the listeners towards the programme, and, after that keep them engaged in it
till the end. Further, the content of a radio programme has to be understood by the listeners then
and there, in real time, during the process of listening itself. While reading a book or a magazine, the
meaning of a difficult word can be looked up in a dictionary and to clarify a point or doubt one can
go back to the earlier passage. But, this is not possible while listening to radio. Hence in radio writing
there is no scope for difficult words, long sentences, unknown references etc. A radio script has to
be in a language we use to speak or talk to each other. That is why the language of radio script is
called ‘Spoken Word’. It should be friendly and informal. Another challenge for a radio writer is the
wide diversity of listeners – from scholarly intellectuals to illiterates - so a radio writer has to find a
balance in his writing so that it can appeal to a wide spectrum of society.

Basic Elements of Radio

Every Radio programme is in fact a message to the listeners. If this message is communicated to and
understood by the listeners and appreciated, then that radio writing can be considered effective and
fruitful. A message through radio or any other medium, have certain codes from the sender of the
message and one who receives the message decodes them. Let us understand this by some simple
examples.

When we talk to each other, then the codes which work to deliver the message are:

RADIO COMPILED BY PROF. AKASH PURSWANI

 1. Spoken words
2. Facial expressions
3. Body gestures such as hand movements

The person to whom we are talking decodes, i.e. understands these. For instance, just by staring
sternly, a father can convey his anger or disapproval to his child. A professor can stop a student
coming late to the class just by a movement of his hand.

In the print medium, i.e. books, magazines, newspapers etc., written words, pictures, tables, graphs
etc. work as ‘codes’ to take the message to the readers. Now, let us try to understand the codes
which work for a radio message, i.e. the basic elements which create the ‘language of radio’. There
are four basic elements which constitute radio programmes, i.e. whenever we listen to any
programme of any radio station from any part of the world, we shall hear only these four

1. Spoken words
2. Sound effects
3. Music
4. Pause or Silence

Words are the most important part of any radio programme. These words are different from printed
words because they reach a listener through a ‘human voice’ and thus are ‘spoken words’. Words of
radio form a double code. One, their own meaning embellished by the beauty of language and
second, the voice in which these are rendered. Thus, the quality of voice as well as delivery of words
can make the language of radio more effective, depending on the style of presentation. In brief we
may say that:

1. Words used in a radio programme are spoken words.

2. These give a feel of human presence.
3. These also reflect some aspects of the speaker’s personality.
4. These may tell us about the ‘broadcast stations’ or even the country from where the
broadcast is coming.

Because radio is a blind medium with no visuals, appropriate sound effects enrich the visuals created
by spoken words in listeners’ minds. Radio plays and documentaries take immense help from
suitable sound effects. Music also helps in developing the language of radio. For example, a musical
piece of just 30 seconds, which is played as a ‘signature tune’, identifies not only the broadcast
institution but also the individual programme. Similarly, the effect of an opening or dropping curtain
in a theatre is achieved by ‘fade in’ and ‘fade out’ of music in a radio drama. The background music
in a radio drama is helpful in making a scene lively.

Radio is a sound medium but absence of any sound is also an important part of language of radio.
This really is the most interesting contradiction that no radio programme can be imagined without
natural and even deliberate pauses or silences. Pause is an integral part of the grammar of radio. The
use of a comma or full stop in print is replaced by that of a pause in radio.

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Characteristics of a Radio Script
Conversational language
Write the way you speak. A well-written script, read word by word, should be invisible to the ear.
Your script has to sound natural and relaxed.

Read your radio script aloud after writing it. If you catch your breath in the middle of a sentence,
shorten the sentence. Watch out for words that are hard to articulate. Ensure your listeners
understand the meanings behind the words you use and go with simple words to pass the message
more clearly. After preparing the script, you can also designate someone to edit and improve it. If
you can't find someone to help, just put your script in a text-to-speech program, for instance, the
Microsoft Word text-to-speech feature. Have it read back to you.

Active Voice
You're writing for flow and to express what is going on now. Broadcast strives for immediacy. To
convey this to the listener, use the active voice whenever possible. In English, try to use a subject-
verb-object sentence structure. For example: "Police (subject) have arrested (verb) 21 activists
(object) for staging a protest at Merlion Park on Saturday afternoon."

Simple Sentences
Easier simple and common words should be used. We need to remember how we talk, not how we
write. Radio is a medium whose least common denominator audience are the laymen, using simple
words is really important. Sentences should avoid conjunctions as much as possible. The sentences
should ideally be of a length appropriate for talking. Remember, unlike print we cannot go back to
the sentence and rehear it. One sentence should carry one idea. Never clutter one sentence with too
many ideas.

Avoidance of Technical Jargons

If a newspaper reader does not understand a word, he or she can return to it and maybe look it up in
a dictionary before proceeding to the rest of the story. Your listeners cannot do this.

By the time they have worked out the meaning of an unfamiliar word, the story will be over and they
will have missed all the other details.

Jargons are specific terms and terminologies which only the experts or the related people of a field
can understand. Since radio addresses an ordinary person as well so chances are there that an
ordinary person may not get the meaning of the word. These kinds of terms must be communicated
through there colloquial equivalents.

For instance

• Spinal cord = back bone

• Inflation = price hike

Jargons, if necessary, then must be simplified. For instance

• Hydrophobia = extreme fear of water

• Kleptomania = a mental illness in which somebody has a strong desire to steal things.

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 • Schizophrenia= a mental illness in which a person becomes unable to link thought, emotion
and behavior that leads to withdrawal from reality and personal relationships.

Capability of creating imageries

Radio audiences need to imagine the people, places and things in your story. With your words,
create powerful and straightforward imagery. Use descriptive verbs instead of adjectives. For
example, if you say “he struts or saunters” you’re giving a picture without using an adjective. But
don't let vivid, imagery-rich writing turn verbose. Use words sparingly.

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Recording Radio Programmes
Basic understanding of the radio studio and transmission equipment
The moment one mentions the words ‘radio studio’ you may think of good sound. You may also
think of the photo studio with which most of you are familiar or a film studio, which you imagine to
be a special area for shooting. A photo studio is a room which is made exclusively for taking pictures.
It has certain conditions suitable

for taking photographs. The room generally is dark; has plenty of artificial lights, which are powerful.
It is suitable for the purpose of taking photographs. There may be curtains and pictures or scenery as
background. If you want to take a photograph for a passport or for any formal purpose, you go to a
photo studio. In a studio, the visual scenery is appropriate.

But how does a radio studio look like? Let us see. There is a table and a microphone. The room has
just one door, which is not very easy to open, as it is very heavy. Before one enters this room, there
is a small enclosed place, which has another heavy door. This empty space is called a sound lock,
which prevents unnecessary outside sounds from entering the studio. Note that we have used the
term ‘unnecessary outside sounds’. Suppose we record sound in an ordinary classroom, office room
or in a drawing room. What would be the result? You would hear the traffic noise from outside or
the sounds of the old fans on the ceiling. You would also hear birds chirping or dogs barking.
Suppose you tune into your favourite radio programme and you listen to all that noise. That will be
terrible. You would expect what you listen to on radio to be clear.

A studio is so designed without any interference to ensure that outside noises are not recorded and
you hear the voice of the speakers clearly. For this, besides the sound lock and heavy doors, you will
find the ceiling and walls with perforated woollen panels. Of course the studio is nice and cool with
proper air-conditioning.

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Microphones
Polar Patterns

It's important to know how much sound a microphone is going to pick up before you use it. That
way, if you have noise in the background while you're recording, you'll know if it's going to be heard
or not.

A polar pattern defines how much of the signal will be picked up by the microphone from different
directions. Some mics pick up sound from only one direction and block out everything behind them.
Other microphones will record from multiple directions, allowing a "surround sound" experience in
your recordings.

Below are different types of polar patterns you should know:

Cardioid Microphones: Cardioid mics capture everything in front of them and block out all noise
from behind, making them a great choice for radio and podcasting. The front-focused pattern will let
you point the mic to a sound source and isolate it from unwanted ambient sound. It's also ideal for
live performances, and popular for events like concerts, karaoke, and even miking instruments like
drum kits and guitar speakers. Something to note, however: because cardioid mics are fantastic at
blocking out unwanted noise, microphone position is very important. If you don't have it right in
front of your sound source, the sound may be quieter than needed.

Super/Hyper Cardioid Microphones: These mics have the same front directionality as a cardioid
microphone but have a narrower area of sensitivity. This means increased sound isolation and a
higher resistance to feedback. However, there is one thing to note. To ensure you get the sound you
want, you will have to position any unwanted sounds on the dead spot sides to the far left and right
of the microphone's backside.

RADIO COMPILED BY PROF. AKASH PURSWANI

Omnidirectional Microphones - Omnidirectional microphones capture noise from all angles. They're
great if you're trying to record soundscapes or if you're in a studio and want to capture a live
performance. Obviously, these mics will pick up sound from all across the room. They don't have
noise-cancelling abilities like cardioid microphones do, so they're not ideal for simple talk show
segments or podcasting. They're also prone to audio feedback, so it's best not to use them in
environments that get too noisy.

Figure-8 Microphones - The name of this polar pattern comes from its shape, which graphically looks
like an eight. It will pick up everything from the front and back, but cancel out noise from the sides.
These kinds of mics aren't very popular, but they are good for stereo recording or if you're trying to
capture two sounds at once. The pattern is also known as "bidirectional," and it's commonly found
on ribbon microphones (we'll talk about those later).

Shotgun Microphones - Shotgun mics feature a tube-like design that make their polar pattern even
more directional than hyper cardioids. This allows them to pick up sound from farther away while
also eliminating sounds from the side. While these are more popular for film and theatre, they can
also be used as overhead mics. They're perfect for recording things on the louder side: like drum
cymbals or choral performances.

Switchable/Multi-Pattern Microphones - These are microphones that can change between different
polar patterns, allowing for whatever placement you'd like. Many of today's USB condenser
microphones have this feature, letting you switch between multiple patterns by simply flicking a
switch. Other switchable/multi-pattern mics let you switch between polar patterns by changing their
mic head.

Microphone Types

There are three types of microphones: condenser, dynamic, and ribbon. You can find all of these
mics in radio broadcasting, but they have individual qualities. Here are the differences between
them:

Condenser - Most mics used for talk radio and podcasting are condenser microphones. They have a
thin conductive diaphragm that sits close to a metal backplate. This configuration means they often
produce higher-quality sound. Condenser microphones require power though, so you'll need a mixer

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or direct box with phantom power (except in cases with batteries). Also, because of their size and
quality, condenser mics need to be handled with a lot of care compared to other microphones.

Lavalier microphones, also known as collar mics, neck mics, are electret condenser microphones.
Lavalier microphone picks up sound and transmits it to equipment (computer, mobile phone,
camera, etc.) via audio wire cables or wireless devices, and converts the analog signal into a digital
signal for voice recording. Due to its compact size, high-sensitivity, easy-to-carry, stable transmission
and other advantages, lavalier microphone gains great popularity among video content creators.
There are about two types of lavalier microphones on the market: wired and wireless.

Dynamic - Reliable and versatile, dynamic mics have a moving coil magnetic diaphragm. This means
dynamic mics can capture sounds even at high pressure levels. You'll generally find these mics more
for live performances. For example: singers hold dynamic microphones in their hands during
concerts. However, many mics used for radio broadcasting these days are dynamic.

Ribbon - These types of mics are on the vintage side and technically out of style, but that doesn't
mean you can't find or use them in radio! They're actually making a comeback these days. The light
metal ribbon used in these mics allows it to pick up the velocity of the air and not just air
displacement. This means ribbon mics have improved sensitivity to higher frequencies and can
capture higher-pitched sounds without any harshness. Modern ribbon mics are now sturdier and
more reliable than their old counterparts, making them ideal for live multi-sound recording in areas
where noise level is manageable.

Amplifier
Amplifiers may be classified in a number of different ways: according to bandwidth (narrow or wide);
frequency range (audio, intermediate, or radio frequency); or output parameter requirement
(voltage or power).

Wide-band radio-frequency amplifiers are not needed for audio signals unless a frequency-
modulated system is used. Amplitude-modulated signals for sound broadcasting should have a
radio-frequency bandwidth of ±10 kilohertz though on medium waves it is often limited to ±5
kilohertz (total bandwidth of 10 kilohertz). High-quality frequency-modulated audio needs a
bandwidth of about ±100 kilohertz.

Audio-frequency amplifiers present few design problems, and negative feedback of the output into
the input can overcome distortion problems. Radio-frequency amplifiers, which can be tuned, suffer
from variation of selectivity (ability to separate adjacent stations) and gain (amplification) over the
tuning range. Selectivity tends to broaden and gain to increase as capacitance is decreased, and
instability can be troublesome at the highest tuning frequency. Intermediate-frequency amplifiers
do not suffer from these defects since the tuning frequency is fixed.

The main problem with radio-frequency amplifiers in receivers is the possibility of cross
modulation—that is, the mixing of two information channels, which can occur if an undesired
modulated signal enters the radio-frequency input together with the desired signal.

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Sound Mixers

A sound mixer is also known as a mixing console or more commonly an audio mixer. This is an
electronic device used for mixing, balancing, and combining different sounds and audio signals,
sources like microphones, instruments, and synthesizers, or previously recorded audio.

The adjusted sound signals are then sent to a result known as the output, which is then transmitted
and amplified using a sound system.

The mixer is the central hub where sound signals from different sources are combined and mixed.
Effects and ambience can also be added, EQ and stereo imaging are balanced and then the output is
directed to the monitor speakers using the mixer.

There are different types of mixers.

• A digital mixer can both receive digital and more common analogue signals.
• An analogue mixer can receive and process analogue signals.
• A software mixer makes use of digital recording software, which is done via a computer.

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Speakers

Studio Monitor Speakers show you how the music sounds without headphones. They must be
of high quality, so that all the abnormal sounds can be detected.

It is also advisable to have another speaker, small and of low quality, to cross-check how the
sound is even in this kind of speakers. Ultimately, the sound must be good but also
understandable for every type of audience.

It is recommended to use speakers specifically designed for music, as they can provide the most
accurate representation of the signal.

Audio Recording
Audio recording is the process by which sound information is captured onto a storage medium like
magnetic tape, optical disc, or solid-state drive (SSD). The captured information, also known as
audio, can be used to reproduce the original sound if it is fed through a playback machine and
loudspeaker system.

Here’s the basic process for creating an audio recording:

1. Sound waves are converted into electricity using a transducer. (Common transducers include
microphones, tonewheels, and pickups.)
2. The electronic information produced by the transducer is stored via computer program or—
many years ago—a tape recorder.
3. The captured information—audio—is made audible via playback machines and loudspeaker
systems.

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Radio Jockeying
Role of a Radio Jockey
A Radio Jockey or a RJ is a person who hosts a talk show on radio. In simple terms he/she is the
'sutradhaar' of an assigned show on radio. He/she hosts the show, reads the script, plays the music
and audio advertisement at specific intervals, raises topics of concern, designs subjects for
discussion and interacts with callers and listeners via telephone, email, social media and SMSs.
Everything that he/she does should be appealing and entertaining. The RJ should be able to engage
the audience with his/her voice and selection of words and how he/she presents the content before
the audience does matter.

Command on language (spoken and written)

Since the work is dependent on audio presentation, radio jockeys must have excellent language and
communication skills. You must speak in a grammatically correct way and use the right words to
express yourself. You must also know how to use verbal and written language to engage and
influence your audience. It is essential to practise your presentation skills and develop your unique
speaking style.

Connectedness with the audience

his isn’t the connectivity of your phone but your connectivity with the people. You should be
outspoken and connect to people. You should know about the city, people, culture and other
aspects so as to connect with the audience you’re delivering to. You should enjoy talking to people
and create a bond with them.

Knowledge about the recording equipment

Being well-versed with audio technology and sound equipment. Most your work happens in a studio
and knowing how to work with technology will help you have a successful show on-air.

Responsibilities of an RJ
1. Preparing scripts for radio shows. Every word you say on-air needs to be timed perfectly for
songs, ad breaks, etc, so it will have to be scripted and rehearsed in advance to avoid
mistakes. This includes factoring in interviews, listener phone calls, promotional content and
more!
2. Strategically organising music for broadcasting. Along with the script, you will also be playing
different songs and tunes that complement the theme of your programme and cater to the
likes/dislikes of your audience. This means finding out which music your radio station has
the rights for, and organising them into playlists based on your script for the day.You will
usually work with the producer of your show for this task.
3. Interviewing celebrities and other guests. Actors and actresses might come to your show to
promote their films. Your audience will need to 'hear' you meeting new and interesting
people, and listen to the conversations you have with them.
4. Developing programme schedules. Listeners will need to listen to programmes based on the
latest trends and themes, so you will have to keep up with what's happening around the
world and share relevant tidbits with your audience.

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 5. Keeping the audience updated with news, traffic, weather reports, sports and other latest
information. Many people listen to the radio while driving/travelling, so you will become
their sole source for all relevant information they might need during their journey.
6. Mapping out promotional contests. This activity is usually carried out with brands. You will
have to come up with interesting contests for your listeners to win goodies that are
sponsored by the brand/s.

RADIO COMPILED BY PROF. AKASH PURSWANI