FACULTY OF COMMERCE

B. COM. [DUAL SPECIALIZATION]

2024 - 25

SEMESTER 2

SUBJECT: ENGLISH PROFICIENCY AND

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION -2

UNIT 2: LANGUAGE WORK

COMPILED BY

Dr. Bhumika Ansodaria

STUDY MATERIAL FOR REFERENCE

SEMESTER 2
ENGLISH PROFICIENCY AND BUSINESS COMMUNICATION -2

UNIT 2 LANGUAGE WORK

[A] DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

[B] DEGREES OF COMPARISON
[C] PROVERBS IN ENGLISH
[D] FOREIGN WORDS USED IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

1
 (A) DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

There are two ways to convey a message of a person, or the words spoken by a
person to other person.

(1) Direct speech (2) Indirect speech/Reported Speech

(1) Direct Speech shows a speaker's exact words. Quotation marks (“...”) are a sign that
the words are the exact words that a speaker used.

(2) Indirect Speech/Reported Speech puts the speaker's words or ideas into a sentence
without quotation marks and without using speaker's exact words; often, they are a
paraphrase of the speaker's words.

Reporting verb: The verb first part of sentence (i.e. he said, she said, he says, they
said, she says,) before the statement of a person in sentence is called reporting verb.

Examples: In the following example, the reporting verb is "said".

She said, "I work in an office" (Direct speech)

She said that she worked in an office. (Indirect speech)

Reported Speech: The second part of indirect speech in which something has been told
by a person (which is enclosed in quotation marks in direct speech) is called reported
speech. For example, a sentence of indirect speech is, she said that she worked in an
office. In this sentence, the second part "she worked in an office" is called reported
speech and that is why the indirect speech as a whole can also be called reported speech.

2
Fundamental rules of Indirect Speech:

(1) The Punctuation marks are thrown away! We do not use the inverted commas ("
'’) in Indirect Speech. We also do not use the? or! when we report someone's words.

(2) Time & Place words change.

(3) There are some connecting words/conjunctions like "that" and "if' used when
rewriting sentences into Reported Speech. The word "that" is used as a conjunction
between the reporting verb and reported speech. [Note: Use of “that" is optional in
reported speech. Both of the following sentences are correct: The boy said that he was
lost. The boy said he was lost.

The 'that' is often omitted especially in Spoken English.]

(4) Some pronouns change. The pronoun (subject) of the reported speech is changed
according to the pronoun of reporting verb or object (person) of reporting verb (first part
of sentence). Sometimes, the pronoun may not change.

(5) There is a change in the Tense used.

[A] Changes in time and adverbs in indirect

speech Time and adverbs are changed in indirect

speech. Examples:

Direct speech: She said, "l will buy a bag tomorrow".

Indirect speech: She said that she would buy a bag the next day.

Direct speech: He said, "l am happy now".

Indirect speech: He said that he was happy then.

Direct speech: She said, "I like this purse".

3
Indirect speech: She said that she liked that purse.

Common Rules

Today (changes to) that day

Tomorrow (changes to) the next day/the following day

Yesterday (changes to) the day before/the previous day

Next week/month/year (changes to) the week after/month/year

Last week/month/year (changes to) the week before/month/year

Now/just (changes to) then; Ago (changes to) before

Here (changes to) there; This(changes to) that

Come (changes to) go; Thus (changes to) so

Tonight (changes to) that night

[B] Change in the tense of reported speech: If the first part of sentence (reporting verb
part) belongs to past tense, the tense of reported speech will change. If the first part of
sentence (reporting verb part) belongs to present or future tense, the tense of reported
speech will not change.

Examples:

Direct Speech: She said, "I am happy".

Indirect Speech: She said that she was happy. (Tense of reported speech changed)

Direct speech: She says, "I am happy".

Indirect Speech: She says that she is happy. (Tense of reported speech didn't change)

4
When the reporting or principal verb is in the Past Tense, all Present Tenses of the
Direct are changed into the Corresponding Past Tenses.

1. The simple present changes into the simple past.

Direct: She said, "I write a letter."
Indirect: She said (that) she wrote a letter.
2. The present continuous changes into the past continuous.
Direct: He said, "He is listening to the music."
Indirect: He said (that) he was listening to the music.
3. The present perfect changes into the past perfect.
Direct: She said, "He has finished his work".
Indirect: She said (that) he had finished his work.
4. The present perfect continuous changes into the past perfect continuous.
Direct: She said, "I have been studying since 4 0'clock.
Indirect: She said (that) she had been studying since 4 0'clock.
5. The past simple changes into the past perfect
Direct: He said, "I didn't buy a car."
Indirect: He said (that) he had not bought a car.
6. The past continuous changes into the past perfect continuous
Direct: I said, "It was raining".
Indirect: I said (that) it had been raining.
7. The past perfect changes into the past perfect (tense does not change)
Direct: I said, "He had eaten the meal".
Indirect: I said (that) he had eaten the meal.
8.The future simple tense WILL changes into WOULD
Direct: He said, "I will buy a car."

5
Indirect: He said (that) he would buy a car.
9.The future continuous tense WILL BE changes into WOULD BE
Direct: She said, "I will be working hard".
Indirect: She said (that) she would be working hard.
10. The future perfect WILL HAVE changes into WOULD HAVE
Direct: She said, "I will have finished the work."
Indirect: She said (that) she would have finished the work.
Exception: The tense of reported speech/indirect speech may not change if reported
Speech is a universal truth though its reporting verb belongs to past tense.

Direct: She said, "Sun rises in the east."

Indirect: she said (that) sun rises in the east.

Hint: The rule in Reported speech is that all verbs in the spoken words (direct speech) go one step
back into the past when it is rewritten as Reported Speech.
She said, “He ate an apple.”
She said that he had eaten an apple.
They said, "We are eating our dinner."
They said that they were eating their dinner.

[C]Indirect speech for sentence having MODALS, "can, may”

Present modals are changed into past modals

Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Indirect speech for sentence having MODALS, “can, may”

6
CAN changes into COULD
She said, “I can drive a car”.
She said that she could drive a car.
MAY changes into MIGHT
She said, "he may go to zoo".
She said that he might go to zoo.

Indirect speech for sentence having MODALS, "should, ought to, might, would, and could"
these modals will not change in indirect speech

WOULD

He said, "I would apply for a job”.

He said that he would apply for a job.

COULD
They said, "we couldn't run faster".
They said they couldn't run faster.
MIGHT
He said, "It might rain".
He said that it might rain.

SHOULD
She said, "I should help him".
She said that she should help him.

7
OUGHT TO
They said, "We ought to respect elders".
They said that they ought to respect elders.

[D] Changes in Pronoun in Indirect Speech

The pronoun (subject) of the reported speech is changed according to the pronounof
reporting verb or object (person) of reporting verb (first part of sentence).
Sometimes, the pronoun may not change.

(1) First person pronoun in reported speech. i.e. I, we, me, us, mine, or our, is changed
according to the pronoun of reporting verb if pronoun in reporting verb is third person
pronoun i.e. he, she, it, they, him, his, her, them or their.

Examples
Direct speech: He said, "I live in Korea".
Indirect speech: He said that he lived in Korea.
Direct speech: They said, "We love our country".
Indirect speech: They said that they loved their country.

(2) Second person pronoun in reported speech. i.e. you, yours is changed according to
the person of object of reporting verb.
Examples
Direct speech: She said to him, "You are intelligent".
Indirect speech: She told him that he was intelligent.
Direct speech: He said to me, "You are late for the picnic".
Indirect speech: He told me that I was late for the picnic.

8
(3) Third person pronoun in reported speech i.e. he, she, it, they, him, his, them
or their, is not changed in indirect speech.
Examples:
Direct speech: They said, "She will come".
Indirect speech: They said that she would come.
Direct speech: You said, "They are waiting for the flight".
Indirect speech: You said that they were waiting for the flight.

(4) First person pronoun in reported speech. i.e. I, we, me, us, mine or our, is
not changed if the pronoun (Subject) of reporting is also first person pronoun
i.e. I or we.
Examples:
Direct speech: I said, "I write an essay".
Indirect speech: I said that I wrote an essay.

[E]Indirect speech for Interrogative (question) sentence

For changing interrogative (question) sentence into indirect speech, we have to observe the
nature of question and then change it into indirect Speech according to its rules for indirect
speech. A question can be of two types. One type which can be answered in only YES or
NO and other type which needs a little bit explanation for its answer and cannot be answered
in only YES or NO. The Interrogative sentences are changed to assertive, with the reporting
verb changed to ask.
If it begins with a question-word, it is used as the connective (conjunction) in the other
cases 'if' or 'whether' is used.
Examples :
Do you like mango? (It can be answered in YES or NO)
How are you? (It cannot be answered in YES or NO but it needs a little bit explanation
i.e. l am fine.)

9
(I) Questions which can be answered in YES/NO.
To change questions (which can be answered in yes or no) into indirect speech, word "if'
or "whether" is used before the question in indirect speech. Rules for change in tense of
question sentences are same as for change in normal tenses in indirect speech but sentence
will not start with the auxiliary verb of the tense. The word "that" is not used between
reporting verb and reported speech as conjunction in indirect speech for question sentence.
Question mark is not used in indirect speech.
Examples:
Direct speech: He said to me, "Do you like mango?"
Indirect Speech: He asked me if I liked mango. (Not, did I like man) Or
Indirect Speech: He asked me whether I liked mango.
Direct speech: She said, “Will he participate in the debate competition?”
Indirect Speech: She asked me if he would participate in the debate competition.
Direct speech: I said to him, "Are you feeling well?"

Indirect Speech: I asked him if he was feeling well.

Direct speech: They said to me, "Did you go to Kashmir?"

Indirect Speech: They asked me if I had gone to Kashmir.

(Il) Questions which cannot be answered in YES/NO.

To change such questions into indirect speech, the words “if” or "whether" is not used.
The tense of the question is changed according to the rules for change in normal tenses
in indirect speech but sentence will not start with the auxiliary verb of the tense. The
word "that" is not used between reporting verb and reported speech as conjunction, in
indirect speech for question sentence. Question mark is not used in indirect speech.

10
Examples :
Direct speech: She said to me, "How are you?"
Indirect speech: She asked me how I was. (Not, how was I)
Direct speech: Mr. Sharma said to him, "What is your name?"
Indirect speech: Mr. Sharma asked him what his name was.
Direct speech: She said to him, "Why did you come late?"
Indirect speech: She asked him why he had come late.
Direct speech: He said, "When will they come?"
Indirect speech: He asked when they would come.

Word order: The word order in a reported question is the same as in a statement. The
subject comes before the verb.

[F]Indirect speech for Imperative and Exclamatory sentences:

Indirect speech of imperative sentence:
A sentence which expresses command, request, advice or suggestion is called imperative
sentence.
For example,
Open the window.
Please help me.
Learn your lesson.

To change such sentences into indirect speech, the word "ordered" or "requested" or
"advised" or "suggested" or "forbade" or "not to do" is added to reporting verb depending
upon the nature of imperative sentence in reported speech and the imperative mood is
changed into the infinitive.

11
All commands and requests must have an Indirect reporting object.

Some reporting verbs: ordered, commanded, shouted to, requested, asked, urged,
begged, pleaded with, advised, recommended, suggested

Examples:
Direct Speech: She said to me, "Please help me".
Indirect Speech: She requested me to help her.
Direct speech: She said to him, "You should work hard for exam."
Indirect Speech: She suggested him to work hard for exam.
Direct speech: They said to her, "Do not tell a lie."
Indirect Speech: They advised her not to tell a lie.
Direct speech: She said, "Open the window."
Indirect Speech: She ordered to open the window.
Direct speech: The teacher said to student, "Do not waste time."
Indirect Speech: The teacher advised the students not to waste time.
Direct speech: Doctor said to me, "Do not smoke."
Indirect Speech: Doctor advised me not to smoke.
Direct speech: The teacher said to him, "Get out"
Indirect Speech: The teacher ordered him to get out.
Indirect speech of Exclamatory sentences:
Sentence which expresses state of joy or sorrow or wonder is called exclamatory
sentence.

For example:
Hurrah! We won the prize.
Alas! I failed in exam.
Wow! What a nice dress it is.

12
To change such sentences, the words "exclaimed with joy", "exclaimed with sorrow",
"exclaimed with wonder" or "exclaimed gratefully/thankfully/
fearfully/happily/joyously/cheerfully/gleefully/sadly/wistfully/unhappily/
grievously/sorrowfully/surprisingly/proudly" is added in the reporting verb depending
upon the nature of exclamatory sentence in indirect speech.

Examples:
Direct speech: He said, "Hurrah! I won the prize."
Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with joy that he had won the prize.
Direct speech: She said, "Alas! I failed in the exam."
Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with sorrow that she had failed in the exam.
Direct speech: Neha said, "Wow! What a nice dress it is!'.
Indirect Speech: Neha exclaimed with wonder that it was a nice dress.
Direct speech: He said, "Hurrah! I am selected for the job."
Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with joy that he was selected for the job.
Direct speech: She said, "Oh no! I missed the train".
Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with sorrow that she had missed the train.
Direct speech: He said, "Wow! What a pleasant weather it is".
Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with wonder that it was a pleasant weather.
Direct Speech: She said, "Alas! I am undone."
Indirect Speech: She exclaimed sadly that she was undone.

13
LET US SUM UP:
Steps to change Direct Speech into Indirect Speech/Reported Speech:
l. Change the reporting verb-according to type of sentence of reported speech.
2. Remove commas, question marks, exclamatory marks and quotation marks-use
conjunction- according to type of sentence of reported speech.
3. Change the verb of reported speech- according to tense of reporting verb.
4. Change the personal pronouns in reported speech.
5. Change the Time and Place words.

RULES FOR CHANGING SPEECH

SPEECH SUBJECT REPORTIN CONJUCTIO REPORTED SPEECH

G N
VERB
DIRECT Rahul said , “I am writing a letter”.
INDIRECT Rahul Said That he was writing a letter.

CHANGE OF REPORTED SPEECH :

Note: When reporting verb is in the past tense following changes occur :

NO. DIRECT INDIRECT

1. Simple Present Simple Past
2. Present Continuous Past Continuous
3. Present Perfect Past Perfect
4. Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
5. Simple Past Past Perfect

14
6. Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
7. Past Perfect No change
8. Past Perfect Continuous No change

CHANGE OF AUXILIARY VERBS :

DIRECT INDIRECT DIRECT INDIRECT

Am Was Can Could
Is Was May Might
Are Were Do not Did not
Have Had Does not Did not
Has Had Did not Had not
Will Would Has not Had not
Shall Should Have not Had not

OTHER CHANGES

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

This That
These Those
Now Then
Here There
Today That Day
Thus So
Hence Thence
This Week/Month/Year That Week/Month/Year

15
 Tomorrow The Next Day/The Following Day
Yesterday The Previous Day/The Day Before
Last Night The Night Before/The Previous Night
Last Week The Week Before/ The Previous Week
Last Year The Year Before/The Previous Year
Next Week The Week After/The Following Week
Ago Before
Come Go
Tonight That Night
The Day Before Yesterday Two Days Before
The Day After Tomorrow In Two Days Time

SECTION A MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. He said, “I don’t like computers.”

a. He said that he did not like computers.
b. He said that he had not liked computers.
c. He told that he does not like computers.
d. He said that he may not like computers.
2. They said, “We have not gone to New York.”
a. They said that they had not gone to New York.
b. They told that they had not gone to New York.
c. They told that we have not gone to New York.
d. They said that we shall have gone to New York.
3. Ram said, “Alas! I have been ruined.”
a. Ram exclaimed with sorrow that he had been ruined.

16
 b. Ram surprised with sorrow that he had ruined.
c. Ram exclaimed with sorrow that he was ruined.
d. None
4. She said, “Do you like tea or coffee?”
a. She asked me whether I liked tea or coffee.
b. She questioned me if I like tea or coffee.
c. She asked me if I had liked tea or coffee.
d. She requested me whether I like tea or coffee.
5. I said to Hari, “Do not pluck the flowers.”
a. I ordered Hari not to pluck the flowers.
b. I told Hari not to pluck the flowers.
c. I commanded Hari to pluck the flowers.
d. I requested Hari not to pluck the flowers.
6. She said that she was not laughing.
a. She said, “I am not laughing.”
b. She told, “She was not laughing.”
c. She said, “She is not laughing.”
d. None
7. Radha said that it had been raining for three days.
a. Radha said, “It has been raining since three days.”
b. Radha told, “It’s been raining since three days.”
c. Radha said, “It was raining since three days.”
d. none

8. My father said that he is slow to start.

a. My father said, “I am slow to start.”
b. My father told, “He was slow to start.”
c. My father said, “I was slow to start.”
d. none

17
9. He said, “What is your problem?”
a. He asked me what my problem was.
b. He told me what was my problem.
c. He checked with me what my problem was.
d. none
10. She wished that she were a bird.
a. She said, “If I were a bird.”
b. She told, “If she was a bird.”
c. She said, “If she was a bird.”
d. none
11. Kayaana asked me, "Did you see the Cricket match on television the last
night?"
a. Kayaana asked me whether I had seen the Cricket match on television the last
night.
b. Kayaana asked me whether I had seen the Cricket match on television the
earlier night.
c. Kayaana asked me did I see the Cricket match on television the last night.
d. Kayaana asked me whether I saw the Cricket match on television the earlier
night.
12. I said to him, “Why are you working so hard?”
a. I asked him why he was working so hard.
b. I asked him why was he working so hard.
c. I asked him why had he been working so hard.
d. I asked him why he had been working so hard.
13. He said to her, “What a cold day!”
a. He exclaimed that it was a very cold day.
b. He told her that it was a cold day.
c. He exclaimed that it was a cold day.
d. He exclaimed sorrowfully that it was a cold day.
18
14. The tailor said to him, “Will you have the suit ready by tomorrow evening?”
a. The tailor asked him if he would have the suit ready by the next evening.
b. The tailor asked him that he will have the suit ready by the next evening.
c. The tailor asked him that he would had the suit ready by the next evening.
d. The tailor asked him if he will like to the suit ready by the next evening.
15. He said to interviewer, “Could you please repeat the question?”
a. He requested the interviewer to repeat the question.
b. He requested the interviewer to please repeat the question.
c. He requested the interviewer if he could please repeat the question.
d. He requested the interviewer if he could repeat the question.
16. He said, “Be quiet and listen to my words”
a. He urged them to be quiet and listen to his words.
b. He urged them and said be quiet and listen to his words.
c. He urged they should be quiet and listen to his words.
d. He said you should be quiet and listen to his words.
17. He said to me, I have often told you not to play with fire.
a. He told me that he had often told me not to play with fire.
b. He said that he has often been telling me not to play with fire.
c. He reminded me that he often said to me not to play with fire.
d. He said to me that he often told me not to play with fire.
18. The Captain said to men, “Stand at ease.”
a. The Captain commanded his men to stand at ease.
b. The Captain urged his men to stand at ease.
c. The Captain wanted his men to stand at ease.
d. The Captain told his men that they should stand at ease.
19. Pawan said to me, “If I hear any news, I’ll phone you.”
a. Pawan told me that if he heard any news, he would phone me.
b. Pawan told me that if he heard any news, he will phone me.
c. Pawan told me that if he will hear my news, he will phone me.
19
 d. Pawan told me that if he had heard any news, he would phone me.
20. He said, “I cannot help you at present because I am myself in difficulty.”
a. He said that he could not help me at present because he was himself in
difficulty.
b. He said that I cannot help you at present because I myself in difficulty.
c. He told that he could not help you at present because he was himself in
difficulty.
d. He asked that he could not help you at present because he was himself in
difficulty.
21. He told her, “I want to meet your father.”
a. He told her that he wanted to meet her father.
b. He told her that I want to meet your father.
c. He told her that he wanted to meet your father.
d. He told her that she wanted to meet her father.
22. He says, “I don’t want to play anymore.”
a. He says that he doesn't want to play anymore.
b. He says that I don't want to play anymore.
c. He says that I didn't want to play anymore.
d. He says that he didn't want to play anymore.
23. The government has announced, “Taxes will be raised.”
a. The government has announced that taxes would be raised.
b. The government has announced that taxes would be raised.
c. The government has announced that taxes would raised.
d. The government has announced taxes will be raised.
24. Mohan said, “We shall go to see the Taj in the moonlit night.”
a. Mohan said that they should go to see the Taj in moonlit night.
b. Mohan said that we shall go to see the Taj in the moonlit night.
c.Mohan told that we shall go to see the Taj in moonlit night.
d.Mohan told that we should go to see the Taj in the moonlit night.
20
25. Geeta said to me, “Can you give me your pen?”
a. Geeta asked me if I could give her my pen.
b. Geeta asked me can I give her my pen.
c. Geeta asked me if I can give me your pen.
d.Geeta asked me if I could give her my pen.

SECTION B DO AS DIRECTED :

Transform the following into Indirect speech:

1. Gandhiji said, "Truth is God."
2. My sister said, "I visited Bangalore three years ago."
3. Shefali said to Rajkumari, "Will you teach me how to make cake?"
4. My friend said to his father, "Why do you scold me very often?"
5. She said to me, "Please show me the way to the university."
6. The captain said to the soldiers, "March on."
7. The doctor said to him, "Don't eat fried food."
8. We said, "Hurrah! We have won."
9. Richa says, "My mother knows French."
10. I said to her, "I will teach you English tomorrow."

21
 [B] DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Comparison can be made using the three forms of the adjective.

Adjective is a word and it qualifies a noun. It gives more information about the noun.

eg. The lion is a strong animal. Rita is a beautiful girl.

Adjectives are of three degrees. (1) Positive (2) Comparative (3) Superlative
eg. David is a rich man.
eg. Cancer is more dreadful than cholera.
eg. Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world.

Study the following models :

Positive Comparative Superlative

John is taller than any other John is the tallest boy in

boys in the class. the class.
Very few boys in the
class are as tall as John.
John is taller than most other John is one of the
boys in the class. tallest boys in the class.

Adjective and Adverbs have three degrees: Positive, Comparative and Superlative.

The Positive Degree is used to denote the mere existence of quality.

The Positive Degree of an adjective in comparison is the adjective in its simple form. It is used

22
to denote the mere existence of some quality of what we speak about. It is used when no
comparison is made.

• It is a tall building.

• Apple is sweet to taste.

The Comparative Degree is used to compare the qualities of two persons or things.

The Comparative Degree denotes the existence of a higher degree of the quality than the
positive. It is used when two things (or two sets of things) are compared.

• This building is taller than any other building.

• Apple is sweeter than pear.

The Superlative Degree denotes the existence of the highest degree of the quality. It is used
when more than two things are compared.

• This is the tallest building.

• Apple is the sweetest fruit.

The Superlative Degree is used when more than two nouns or things are compared.

• Johny is kind (Positive Degree)

• Johny is kinder than Rosy (Comparative Degree)

• Johny is the kindest of all (Superlative

Degree) Model -1: “The best":

Examples:

i. This is the best hotel in this area.

23
No other hotel is as better as this on in this area.

No other hotel is as good as this one in this area.

ii. Unemployment is the most serious problem facing our country.

Unemployment is more serious than any other problem facing our country. No

other problem facing our country is as serious as unemployment.

Model-2: “One of the best":

Examples:

i. Calcutta is one of the largest cities in India.

Calcutta is large than most other cities in India.

Very few cities in India are as large as Calcutta.

ii. Sachin Tendulkar is one of the best batsmen in the world.

Sachin Tendulkar is better than most other batsmen in the world.

No other batsman in the world is as good as Sachin Tendulkar.

Model-3: “Not the best":

Examples:

i. This is not the best solution to the problem.

24
ii. This is not better than few other solutions to this problem.

iii. Other solutions to this problem are not as good as this one.

ii. New York is not the largest city in America.

New York is not bigger than many other cities in America.

Few other cities in America are at least as large as New York.

FORMATION OF COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE DEGREES

(a) Most Adjectives of one syllable, and more than one, form the Comparative by
adding ‘er’, and the superlative by adding ‘est’ to the Positive; as;

Positive Comparative Superlative

Small Smaller Smallest

Kind Kinder Kindest

Bold Bolder Boldest

When the Positive ends in ‘e’ only, ‘r’ and ‘st’ are added; as :

Positive Comparative Superlative

Brave Braver Bravest

Wise Wiser Wisest

25
When the Positive ends in ‘y’ preceded by a consonant, the ‘y’ is changed into ‘i’ before
adding ‘er’ and ‘est’.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Happy Happier happiest

Wealthy Wealthier Wealthiest

When the Positive is a word of one syllable and ends in a single consonant, preceded by a
short vowel, this consonant is doubled before adding ‘er’ and ‘est’.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Red Redder reddest

Hot Hotter Hottest

(b) Adjectives of more than two syllables, and many of those with two, form the Comparative
by using the adverb ‘more’ with the Positive; and the Superlative by using the adverb, ‘most’
with the Positive.

Examples:

• Beautiful..........more beautiful. .... most beautiful

• Effective……….more effective…most effective

• Effectively………more effectively ..most effectively

• Enjoyable………….more enjoyable…most enjoyable

• Useful……………….more useful… most useful

26
 • Different………..more different… .most different

Comparison between two things.

Positive Comparative

Johny is as clever as Rosy Rosy is not cleverer than Johny

Benjamin is at least as tall as Jane Jane is not taller than Benjamin

Comparative Positive

Lazar is brighter than Stalin Stalin is not so bright as Lazar

Superlative Comparative Positive

Akthar is the richest Akthar is richer than any other No other man in Kanpur is
man in Kanpur man in Kanpur so rich as Akthar

Superlative Comparative Positive

London is one of the London is bigger than most Very few cities in
biggest cities in other cities in England England are so big as
England London

Superlative Comparative Positive

Shakespeare is the Shakespeare is greater than No other dramatist is so

greatest of all dramatists all other dramatists great as Shakespeare

Positive Comparative

Lazar is as strong as Lenin Lenin is not less stronger than Lazar

Positive Comparative Superlative

27
Some boys in our class are Some boys in our class are Benjamin is not the most
at least as intelligent as not intelligent than intelligent boy in our
Benjamin Benjamin class

Superlative Comparative Positive

Iron is the most useful of Iron is more useful than any No other metal is so
all metals. other metal. useful as iron.

Superlative Comparative Positive

Tom is the cleverest of all Tom is cleverer than any No other boy in the class
boys in the class. other boy in the class. is so clever as Tom.

Superlative Comparative Positive

Rain water is the Rain water is purer than any No other water is so pure
purest water. other water. as rain water.

Superlative Comparative Positive

Paris is one of the busiest Paris is busier than most Very few cities in
cities in France. other cities in France. France are as busy as
Paris.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Very few animals are as Cheetah is faster than most Cheetah is one of the

28
 fast as cheetah. other animals. fastest animals.

Superlative Comparative Positive

Foot ball is one of the Foot ball is more interesting Very few games are as
most interesting games. than most other games. interesting as foot ball.

Comparative Positive

Paris is hotter than London. London is not so hot as Paris.

Positive Comparative

John is as tall as David. David is not taller than John.

Comparative Positive

The Blue Mountain Express runs faster The Green Express does not run so fast as
than the Green Express. the Blue Mountain Express.

(A) MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Red apples are usually than green apples.

a. more sweeter
b. sweeter
c. most sweet
d. sweetest

29
2. They have three sons and two daughters. Bunty is of their children.

a. most young
b. the youngest
c. the younger
d. younger
3. I can't hear you. Please speak .
a. loudest
b. louder
c. more loud
d. the most loud

4. As we didn't have much money, we stayed at hotel that we could find.

a. a less expensive
b. the least expensive
c. a more expensive
d. the most expensive

5. They say that it's storm in ten years.

a. by far worse
b. the worst
c. most worst
d. the worse

6. That happened in 1990, maybe even .

a. more early
b. earlier

30
 c. the earliest
d. the most early

7. I have no questions.
a. farther.
b. further
c. farthest
d. furthest
8. I need a brown carpet. This carpet is than brown.

a. most red
b. more red
c. redder
d. reddest

9. She walked trying to see the house numbers in the dark.

a. as slow as
b. more slowly
c. more slow
d. more slower

10. I think that it's but still possible.

a. as likely as
b. less likely
c. likelier
d. more likely

31
11. She is than her sister.

a. pretty
b. prettier
c. none
d. prettiest

12. Martha is a girl.

a. nicer
b. nice
c. nicest
d. none

13. Supriya is the girl in the class.

a. intelligent
b. most intelligent
c. none
d. more intelligent

14. Martin speaks English .

a. better
b. well
c. none
d. best

15. Russia is the country in the world.

a. bigger
b. biggest

32
 c. big
d.none

16. China is a country.

a. bigger
b. big
c. biggest
d. none

17. China is than India.

a. biggest
b. bigger
c. big
d. none

18. This is the book I have ever read.

a. more interesting
b. most interesting
c. none
d. interesting

19. I am than you.

a. Smart
b. smarter
c. Smartest
d. none

33
20. Take the of the two routes.
a. short
b. Shorter
c. none
d. shortest

21. Platinum is than any metal.

a. precious
b. more precious
c .most precious
d. none

22. Milk is than water.

a. more cheap
b. cheaper
c. cheap
d. the cheapest

23. Hunger is the sauce.

a. good
b. best
c. better
d. most good

24. She is girl in the class.

a. the more prettier
b. the prettiest

34
 c. the most prettiest
d. none

25. Greenland is island.

a. larger
b. the largest
c. none
d. large

SECTION B DO AS DIRECTED:
Read the sentences given below and modify them as instructed:

1. Paris is busier than most other cities in France. (Change into Positive Degree)
2. Rain water is the purest water. (Change into Comparative Degree)
3. No other dramatist is so great as Shakespeare.(Change into Superlative Degree)
4. Krish is as tall as Sam. (Change into Comparative Degree)
5. Platinum is the most expensive of all the metals. (Change into Positive degree)
6. Naman is smarter than Raju. (Change into Positive degree)
7. Russia has a larger area than Canada. (Change into Positive degree)
8. Sara is the most intelligent girl in the class. (Change into Positive degree)
9. Bhopal is the greenest city in India. (Change into Comparative Degree)
10. Very few students in the class are as diligent as Rina. ( Change into Superlative degree)
11. This pencil is not as sharp as the other. (Change into Comparative Degree)
12. Ronak is the most athletic of all the boys. ( Change into Positive degree)

35
 [C]PROVERBS
A proverb is a short, pithy saying that expresses a traditionally held truth or piece of
advice, based on common sense or experience. Proverbs usually express some obvious,
universal truth or family experience that is shared amongst many people. There are
many proverbs in existence, so there is a selection of some of the most well-known
proverbs in English.
1. A bad workman always blames his tools : Incompetent people often find excuses
instead of taking responsibility for their failures, A person who lacks skills or
proficiency in their work will often blame their tools or equipment for their poor
performance or results
2. A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step : big achievements are
made through small but concrete resolves
3. A Smooth Sea Never Made A Skilled Sailor : Challenging yourself and getting out
of your comfort zone is what helps you grow and develop.
4. Better Safe Than Sorry : it is better to be careful now so that problems do not occur
later on
5. Cross the bridge when we come to it: not to worry about a possible problem too
much in advance
6. Don’t cry over spilled milk: Don’t waste time worrying about something that has
already happened
7. Don’t bite the hand that feeds you : Don’t hurt or criticize those who help you
8.Don’t bite off more than you can chew: you shouldn't take on more responsibility
than you can handle
9. Don’t make a mountain out of an anthill (or molehill): Don’t make a minor
problem or difficulty into a major one; don’t exaggerate the significance of a small
problem
10. Haste Makes Waste : Rushing through a task often creates problems or extra work.
11. If you play with fire, you’ll get burned: Engaging in risky behavior can lead to
trouble.
12. Look before you leap: Think carefully before you take an action/a decision
13.Let sleeping dogs lie: don’t disturb the situation because you might create a bigger
problem, leave things as they are in order to avoid conflict

36
14. Many hands make light work : Tasks become easier when multiple people work
together
15. No man is an island : No one is truly capable of living alone. We need human
connection to be healthy
16. No pain, no gain : Hard work and suffering are necessary to achieve success.
17. Too many cooks spoil the broth : When too many people are involved, it can lead
to problems.
18. There is no such thing as a free lunch : Everything has a cost, even if it’s not
obvious.
19. The squeaky wheel gets the grease : The most noticeable problems receive
attention, People who complain or protest the loudest or most frequently are the ones
who will get what they want.
20. You can’t have the best of both worlds: you cannot have two opposite things at the
same time
21. You can catch more flies with honey than with vinegar : Being kind and polite is
more effective than being rude.
22. You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink it : You can
provide opportunities, but you can’t force someone to take them, You can give
someone helpful advice, but you can't make them accept it or act on it.
23. You can’t have your cake and eat it too : You can’t have everything; sometimes
you have to make choices.
24. Opportunity Seldom Knocks Twice : You only get great opportunities rarely. So
grab them immediately, otherwise you might lose them forever!
25. Well Begun Is Half Done : If you start a task or project in the best way possible, it
will take you – or seem to take you – less effort to complete it.
26. Make Hay While the Sun Shines : To make the most of a good situation or an
opportunity that is not likely to last long.
27. Rome wasn’t built in a day : It takes time and effort to achieve something
important
28. Out of sight, out of mind : when something or someone is no longer visible or
present, it is often forgotten or no longer thought about.
29. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder : everyone sees beauty differently, and what is
ugly to one person may be beautiful to another.
30. When life gives you lemons, make lemonade : You should always make the best
out of difficult situations
37
SECTION A DO AS DIRECTED:
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:
1. Look before you leap.
[A]When making a big “jump” in life, make sure you have looked at the situation and
really understand it before you take big action.
[B] When making a big “Leap”, you can sure that the distance between Two things.
[C] Look positively before taking any decision.
[D] Look into the matter and after that you can leap.

2. You can lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink.
[A]You are not able every time to drink water to horse.
[B]You are not able to do what you want.
[C] You try to help someone, help them.
[D] You cannot force someone to accept your help or advice.

3. Too many cooks spoil the broth.

[A]More than one cook making the food.
[B] Too many people trying to do one thing at once. It damages the things.
[C] More people work together it is spoiling relations.
[D] Many cooks spoiling the broth test.

4. Many hands make light work.

[A] Many hands working together and make lighting work.
[B] Always go with many people
[C] Major work not possible without help.
[D] If everyone works together to complete something, then each Person has less to do.

5. Do not bite the hand that feeds you.

[A] If you were to bite the hand that give you food, that hand not feed You again.
38
[B] You should always be kind and thankful to those who care for you Do not hurt them.
[C] Always care for old person.
[D] Always help those people who are homeless.

6. No man is an island
[A] Island is very coldest place, so no man can live there.
[B] You cannot live completely independently. Everyone needs help from other people.
[C]Going to island is prohibited.
[D] At the Himalayan site so many islands, there is no man can live.

7. A bad workman always blames his tools.

[A] A good workman always needs good tools.
[B] A bad workman blames his tools, because it is not proper.
[C]A good workman uses good tools, a bad workman uses bad tools
[D]When someone not interested for doing job, then they blame to The work place,
climate, tools, time etc.

8. Better safe than sorry.

[A] It is better to plan for going anywhere, if not you are facing trouble in travelling.
[B]It is better to invest time and effort in preparing for something than to suffer the
consequences if or when things go wrong.
[C]Always wear good clothes.
(D]It is better to protect yourself when you are going on a journey.

9. Do not cross the bridge until you come to it.

[A] Think positive when you do something right.
[B]It is better to think about what you are doing right now, without worrying about the
unknown and take care of issues.
[C]Do not cross the new bridge without knowing the route.
[D]Do not cross your limit.
39
10. Do not make a mountain out of a molehill.
[A] Do not make molehill near home.
[B]Do not make mountain and molehill nearby.
[C]Do not make a mountain when you have a molehill.
[D]Do not make a huge problem out of a small issue.

11. You cannot have your cake and eat it too.

[A] You cannot have your cake, then you order a new cake.
[B]If you do not have a cake, you cannot eat.
[C] When you make a cake, you cannot eat instantly.
[D]To enjoy the advantage of two things that should not exist together.

12. The squeaky wheel gets the grease.

[A] Moving wheels needed timely greasing.
[B] In the life coming problems are solvable.
[C]Someone who complains about problem, you should ignore it.
[D] Attention is paid to those problems that are made most noticeable

13. Complete the proverb: Make hay while the _____ shines.
[A]Moon [B]Jupiter [C]Sun [D]Earth

14. The teddy bear was (not visible) so the little boy soon forgot about it.
[A]once bitten, twice shy
[B] out of sight, out of mind
[C] in for a penny, in for a pound
[D] nothing ventured, nothing gained

15. The man believes that (some things take much time) and it will take time and
40
 effort to finish the difficult job.
[A] when in Rome do as the Romans do
[B] a rolling stone gathers no moss
[C] what's good for the goose is good for the gander
[D] Rome was not built in a day

16. You must be careful when you cross the road. As the saying goes
________________.
[A] look before you leap [B] better late than never [C] more haste, less speed
[D] fortune favours the bold

17. A __________ always blames his tools.

[A] Clever mason [B]Sleepy Operator [C] Bad Workman [D]tired labourer

18. A bad workman always ________ his tools.

[A]quarrels [B]plays [C]fights [D]blames

19. What does the phrase "Make hay while the sun shines" mean?
[A] Take a break when things are going well.
[B] Take advantage of an opportunity while it lasts.
[C] Work hard only when you feel like it.
[D] Avoid making decisions during difficult times.

20. What does the phrase "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder" mean?
[A] Beauty is universally recognized by everyone.
[B]Beauty depends on the perspective and preferences of the individual.
[C] Only certain people can define beauty.
[D] Beauty is fixed and doesn't change over time.

41
21. What does the phrase "When life gives you lemons, make lemonade" mean?
[A] Always complain about your problems.
[B] Turn negative situations into positive opportunities.
[C] Avoid challenges and difficulties at all costs.
[D] Accept that bad things will always happen.

22. What does the proverb "Don’t bite off more than you can chew" mean?
[A] Always take small bites.
[B] Don’t take on more responsibilities than you can handle.
[C] Always chew your food thoroughly.
[D] It’s best to take on as many tasks as possible.

23. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder means :

[A] If you're asking for a favor from someone else, you have to take whatever they give
you.
[B] If someone's helping out out, be careful not to make them made.
[C] Different people have different ideas about what is beautiful
[D] Wait until you've already succeeded and then you can think about what to do next.

[24]What does the proverb "The squeaky wheel gets the grease" mean?
[A] The most vocal problems get the most attention.
[B] Wheels need grease to work.
[C] People should always complain to get help.
[D] Squeaky wheels should never be ignored.

[25]The proverb "Out of sight, out of mind" means:

[A] People often forget about things they don’t see.
[B] Things that are not seen are always the most important.
[C] Out of sight things are the best.
42
 [D] Things should always be in sight to be remembered.

SECTION B DO AS DIRECTED:
GIVE MEANING OF THE FOLLOWING PROVERBS:
1. Well Begun Is Half Done
2. A Smooth Sea Never Made A Skilled Sailor
3. Better Safe Than Sorry
4. Cross the bridge when we come to it
5. Don’t cry over spilled milk
6.Don’t bite off more than you can chew
7. Don’t make a mountain out of an anthill
8. Haste Makes Waste
9.Let sleeping dogs lie
10. No pain, no gain

[D]FOREIGN WORDS IN COMMON USE

1. Ad hoc (adv./adj.) (L.) - for the special purpose, made, arranged, for a
particular purpose.
2. Ad interim (adv.) (L.) - in the mean while; for the mean time; for the time
being, e.g., interim dividend.
3. Alibi (noun) (L.) - the legal defense that a person was elsewhere when the
crime was committed; the fact of being elsewhere; an excuse.
4. Bona fide (adj./adv.) (L.) - Good faith; honestly genuine; really. (e.g. bonafide
student)
5. Caveat Emptor (noun) (L.) - let the purchaser beware; that is, buy at one's
own risk; a buyer should beware of.

43
 6. Consensus (noun) (L.) - Unanimity; agreement; especially in opinion; hence,
general opinion.
7. Corrigendum (noun) (L.) - an error discovered after printing the document and
presented on a different sheet with correction attached with the original.
8. De facto (adj./adv.) (L.) - actual, in fact, in reality, existing (regardless of
legal or moral considerations.)
9. De jure (adj./adv.)(L.) - by right, in accordance with law, rightful.
10. Debris (noun) (Fr.) - wreckage, scattered fragments, remains; rubbish,
rubble, esp. caused by destruction; ruins, heap of rock in fragments.
11. Emeritus (adj.) (L.) - retired, used to honor a person who has retired. Generally
used for a professor.
12. En masse (adj./adv.)(F.) - as a body, all together, in a mass. in a crowd.
13. En route (adv./adj.)(F.) - on the way, along the way.
14. Eureka (interj.) (Gk.) - Used to express triumph or victory.
15. Exempli gratia (phrase) – (L) a phrase which means ‘for example’. It can be
pronounced as’e.g.’ or ‘for example’, for instance.
16. Ex-gratia (adj./noun) (L.) - as an act of grace; a payment made as a favour, not
because one has a duty in law to do it; free, without recompense.
17. Ex-officio (adj./adv.) (L.) - by reason of one's office, by virtue of office,
because of one's position.
18. Ex-parte (adj ./adv.) (L.) - relating to only one part of side, one sided, as a
partisan, from the point of view of, or, in the interest of one side only, in a law case
19. Fait Accompli (noun) (F.) an accomplished fact, a thing already done, so
that opposition or argument is useless, something that has already happened or
has been done and that can not be changed.
20. Front a Front (F.) - field, forehead, brow, face.
21. Id est (i.e.) (L.) - that is.
22. In camera (adj./adv.) (L.) - in chamber, in a judge's private office rather
44
than in open court, in a closed session, as a committee meeting or hearing, not open
to the public, secretly.
23. In toto (adv.) (L.) - wholly, entirely, completely.
24. Intra Vires (adj./adv.) (L.) - within one's powers, under authority.
25. Ipso Facto (adj./adv.) – by the fact (or act) itself, by that very fact, there by.
26. Lacuna (Noun) - (L.) space where something has been omitted or has come
out, a gap, a hiatus, a ditch, hole, cavity, pool, a hollow, missing gap in argument.
27. Locus standi (noun)- (L.) lit., a place for standing, the right to appear before a
court or to interfere.
28. Malafide (adj./adv.) - (L.) in bad faith, with evil intension, treacherously.
29. Modus operandi (noun) - (L.) a particular way of doing something or in
which something is done, especially, a particular criminals usual way of carrying out
crimes, manner or mode of operating way or method of doing or making,
procedure, style of working.
30. Nota bene (phrase) - (L.) to take note (of) abbr. n.b.
31. Per annum (adj./adv.) - (L.) by the year, annually, for or in each year.
32. Per capita (adj./adv.) - (L.) for or by each person, (counting) by heads, by
the head, per head. (e.g. per capita income)
33. Per centum (noun) - (L.) by the hundred, in or for each hundred.
34. Per Contra (adv) – (L) contrariwise, I the revere order, in the opposite way,
on the contrary.
35. Per Diem (adj./adv./noun) – (L) by the day, daily, for each day.
36. Prima facie (adj.) - (L.) in enough to establish a fact or raise a presumption
of fact unless refuted, said of evidence, at first sight, on the first before further
examination, self-evident.
37. Pro forma (adj.) - (L.) done for form's sake, as a matter of form, of an
account c., made out to show the market price of specified goods.
38. Pro rata (adj]adv.) - (L.) in proportion, proportionately (that is calculated)
45
 according to the rate, fair share etc. of each.
39. Proximo (adj.) - (L.) in or of the next month following the present one.
40. Senor (noun) - (Sp.) term used to address man, equivalent to 'Mr.' of
English.
41. Senorita (noun) - (Sp.) term used to address woman, equivalent to 'Ms.' In
English.
42. Sine die (adv./adj.) - (L.) without a day specified for a future meeting,
indefinitely.
43. Status quo (adv.) - (L.) without (a) day (being set for meeting again), for
an indefinite period, ofa meeting or a matter indefinitely adjourned.
44. Sub-judice (adv.) – (L) before the judge; not decided; under judicial
consideration.
45. Ultimo (adj.) – (L) – in the last month, in the month which preceded the
present one, the previous month
46. Ultra vires (adv.) - (L.) beyond one's powers; beyond the power of a
person, corporation legally or constitutionally.
47. Via-media (noun) - (L.) with the medium; through, the middle course or
way.
48. Vice (noun) - (L.) An evil, degrading, or immoral practice or habit. A
serious moral failing. Wicked or evil conduct or habits; corruption.
49. Vice versa (adv.) - (L.) With the order or meaning reversed Conversely.
50. Viva Voce (adv./adj.) - (L.) by word of mouth.

MCQS:
1. Ad Hoc means ___________.
A. In the mean while
B. Good Faith
C. For the special purpose
46
 D. An excuse
2. Corrigendum means _________________.
A. Let the purchaser beware
B. Actual
C. Unanimity
D. An error occurred in Document
3. Ex-gratia means _________________.
A. As an act of grace
B. A phrase which means ‘For Example’
C. On the way
D. Used to express
4. Id est means ____________.
A. Wholly B. That is to say C. Under authority D. In chamber
5. Lacuna means ______________.
A. A gap B. By the fact itself C. In bad faith D. None
6. Modus operandi means ______________
A. For or by each person
B. Style of working
C. To take note
D. By the year
7. Prima facie means ____________
A. By the day
B. At first sight
C. By the hundred
D. Contrariwise
8. Senor means ______________.
A. in or of the next month
B. Term used to address man
47
 C. Done for form’s sake
D. In proportion
9. The term used to address woman _____________.
A. Senorita B. Senor C. Sine die D. Status quo
10.What is the term used for “without a day specified for a future meeting”?
A. Senor B. Senorita C. Sine die D. Status quo
11.The term used for “for an indefinite time” is ____________
A. Ultimo
B. Senor
C. Sub-judice
D. Status quo
12.__________ means “Before the judge.”
A. In camera B. Malafide C. Locus standi D. Ultimo
13.Ultimo means ____________.
A. With the medium
B. In the last month
C. Beyond one’s power
D. In the next month
14.Ultra vires means ____________.
A. Beyond one’s power
B. With the medium
C. An evil
D. None
15.What is the meaning of Via-media?
A. In bad faith
B. a middle way
C. Literature
D. By word of mouth
48
 16.What is the meaning of Vice Versa?
A. By the Day
B. In Law
C. In proportion
D. With the order or meaning reversed

17.What is the meaning of Viva Voce?

A. Done for Form’s Sake B. To take the note C. By word of mouth D. legally

18. Eureka!(Greek) means:

A. Amazement B. I have found it! C. Attack D. Disappointment

19. Bonafide means:

A. authentic
B. fake
C. duplicate
D. Not real

20. en masse means:

A. neck to neck
B. nip and tuck
C. as a group
D. second hand
21. What does the Latin phrase NOTA BENE mean?
A. Take it back
B. Note well
C. I am sick

49
D. Bless you
22. Alibi means:
A. an excuse
B. as a group
C. orally
D. crime
23. Consensus means:
A. Collective opinion
B. Dispute
C. lack of agreement
D. disagreement
24. Debris Means:
A. ruins
B. machine
C. building
D. title
25. Nota bene means:
A. Note well
B. not well
C. notebook
D. yearly

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Wren & Martin High School English Grammar and Composition Book (Regular
Edition) by Rao N, D,V, Prasada and N.D.V. Prasada Rao
2. English Grammar in Use: A Self-study Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate
Learners of English, 4th Edition, Raymond Murphy, Cambridge
50