Electric Motors- 23EET402

2024-25

Mrs. Vimala C S
Asst. Professor
Department of EEE,
SJBIT
 2
14.08.2023
Semester: IV Course Type: PCC

Course Title: Electric Motors

Course Code: 23EET402 Credits: 3

Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P:O) 3:0:0:@ Total Hours: 40

CIE Marks: 50 SEE Marks: 50 Total Marks: 100

SEE Type: Theory Exam Hours: 3 Hours

I. Course Objectives:
• Aims in imparting fundamental knowledge of construction, types of electric motors.
• Operation of AC motors and DC motors required for electrical engineers.
II. Teaching-Learning Process (General Instructions):
• Chalk and talk method
• Power point presentation / keynotes
• Videos
• Animations
III. COURSE CONTENT
Module-1: DC Motor and Testing 8 Hrs
DC Motors: Introduction, Classification, Back emf, Principle of operation, Torque equation, Types,
characteristics, Losses, power flow diagram, efficiency, condition for maximum efficiency, Speed control
and starters. Numerical.
DC Motor Testing: Swinburne’s Test, Hopkinson’s Test, Field Test and Numerical.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part I:
Sections 8.1-8.4, 8.7, 8.10, 8.12 to 8.15, 8.17 to 8.21, 8.25, 9.1 to 9.5, 10.1 to 10.5, 10.7, 10.8, 10.10.
Pre-requisites (Self Learning)
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, Lenz’s Law.
RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3
Module-2: Three Phase Induction Motor 8 Hrs
Three Phase Induction Motor: Types, Construction, Working Principle, Applications, Slip, significance
of slip, Torque equation, Maximum torque, Torque-slip and torque-speed curves, torque-slip characteristic
covering motoring, generating and braking regions of operation, Losses, efficiency and Numerical.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part I:
Section Part III: Section 7.1 to 7.11, 7.18 to 7.23.
Pre-requisites (Self Learning):
Electromagnetic Fields, Electric Circuits Analysis, Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3
Module-3: Performance Analysis of Three Phase Induction Motor 8 Hrs

Performance Analysis of Three Phase Induction Motor: No-load and blocked rotor tests, Performance
Analysis of induction motor-Equivalent Circuit & Circle Diagram, Induction motor working as induction
generator, Cogging and crawling. High torque rotors-double cage and deep rotor bars.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part III:
Section7.26 to 7.29,7.31 to 7.32, 7.35, 7.40, 9.1

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Pre-requisites (Self Learning):

Electromagnetic Fields, Electric Circuits Analysis.

RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3

Module-4: Starting and Speed Control of 3ϕ & 1ϕ Induction Motor 8 Hrs

Starting Methods and Speed Control of 3 phase Induction motor:

Need for starter. Direct online, Star-Delta, and autotransformer starting. Rotor resistance starting. Speed
control by voltage, frequency, and rotor resistance methods.
Single Phase Induction Motor: Double revolving field theory, Types, Construction, Working principle,
Applications, AC Series Motor.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part III:
Section: 8.1 to 8.3.
Electric Machines, Ashfaq Husain: Chapter 8: Section 8.1 to 8.4, 8.7,8.10 to 8.18
Pre-requisites (Self Learning):
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, Induction Motor working
RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3
Module-5: Special Machines and applications. 8 Hrs

Synchronous Motor: Working Principles, Starting Methods, Applications, Voltage and Power Factor
control, V and inverted V curves, PMSM
Special Machines: Linear Induction Motor, AC and DC Servo Motor, Brushless DC motor, Stepper
motors, SRM.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part III:
Section 5.1, 5.2,5.5,5.13,5.19,5.20,5.25, 9.3, 10.23.3 Part I: Section 11.12
Electrical Machines, Ashfaq Husain: chapter 9: section 9.1-9.2, 9.4-9.9
Pre-requisites (Self Learning):
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3

IV. COURSE OUTCOMES

On the successful completion of the course, students will be able to
Explain the construction, principle of operation of various types of AC motors, DC motors and
CO1 special purpose motors.
CO2 Analyze the characteristics and performance of DC machines at loaded conditions.
CO3 Explain the starting methods, speed control, and testing of AC &DC Motors

CO4 Determine the performance of AC Motors using different tests

V. CO-PO-PSO MAPPING (mark H=3; M=2; L=1)

PO/PSO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 S1 S2 S3 S4
CO1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
CO2 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
CO3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
CO4 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
VI. Assessment Details (CIE & SEE)
General Rules: Refer Annexure Section 1

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Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE): Refer Annexure Section 1

Semester End Examination (SEE): Refer Annexure Section 1
VII. Learning Resources
VII(a): Textbooks:
Sl. Name of the
Title of the Book Name of the author Edition and Year
No. publisher
Theory of
Performances of Kataria & Sons
1 Gupta.J.B 14thEdition, 2013
Electrical
Machines’
Dhanpat Rai & Co.
2 Electric Machines Ashfaq Husain 2nd Edition 2008
VII(b): Reference Books:

A Textbook of
S Chand and
1 Electrical B.L.Theraja Reprint Edition 2014
Company
Technology
Basic Electrical McGraw-Hill
2 Engineering D.P. Kothari 4th Edition,2019
Education
VII(c): Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):
Mention the links of the online resources, video materials, etc.
https://youtu.be/qZaB6par1zI
https://youtu.be/VczIcTD9mTo
https://youtu.be/E7jG-m9Kpd8
https://youtu.be/7Wzw04-vmv8
https://youtu.be/ijbZS1kBnSk
VIII: Activity Based Learning / Practical Based Learning/Experiential learning:
Activities like seminar, assignments, quiz, case studies, mini projects, industry visit, self-study activities,
group discussions, etc

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Module-5
SPECIAL MACHINES AND APPLICATIONS

Synchronous Motor

Introduction:
If a three phase supply is given to the stator of a three phase alternator, it can work as
a motor. As it is driven at synchronous speed, it is called synchronous generator. So if alternator is run
as a motor. It will rotate at a synchronous speed. Such a device which converts an electrical energy into
a mechanical energy running at synchronous speed is called synchronous motor. Synchronous motor
works only at synchronous speed and cannot work at a speed other than the synchronous speed. Its speed
is constant irrespective of load, no doubt, its speed changes for an instant at the time of loading.

Types
The two types of synchronous motor are,
1. Three phase synchronous motors

2. Single phase synchronous motor

The single phase synchronous motors are further classified as reluctance motor and hysteresis motor.
The three phase synchronous motor works on the concept of rotating magnetic field. The field
produced by stationary three phase winding, which rotates in space is called rotating magnetic field. Its
speed is always synchronous and given by,
Ns = 120f/P , Where P = Number of poles for which winding is wound f = Frequency of the supply.

Principle of Working of 3-Phase Synchronous Motor:

Synchronous motor works on the principle of the magnetic locking. When two unlike poles are brought
near each other, if the magnets are strong, there exists a tremendous force of attraction between those
two poles. In such condition the two magnets are said to be magnetically locked.
If now one of the two magnets is rotated, the other also rotates in the same direction, with the same speed
due to the force of attraction i.e. due to magnetic locking condition. The principle is shown schematically
in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Principle of magnetic locking

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So to have the magnetic locking condition, there must exist two unlike poles and magnetic axes of two
must be brought very close to each other. Let us see the application of this principle in case of
synchronous motor.
Consider a three phase synchronous motor, whose stator is wound for 2 poles. The two magnetic fields
are produced in the synchronous motor by exciting both the windings, stator and rotor with three phase
a.c. supply and d.c. supply respectively. When three phase winding is excited by a three phase a.c. supply
the flux produced by the three phase winding is always of rotating type, which is already discussed in
the previous post. Such a magnetic flux rotates in space at a speed called synchronous speed. This
magnetic field is called rotating magnetic field. The rotating magnetic field creates the effect similar to
the physical rotation of magnets in space with a synchronous speed. So stator of the synchronous motor
produces one magnet which is as good as rotating in space with the synchronous speed. The synchronous
speed of a stator rotating magnetic field depends on the supply frequency and the number of poles for
which stator winding is wound. if the frequency of the a.c. supply is f Hz and stator is wound for P
number of poles, then the speed of the rotating magnetic field is synchronous given by,
Ns = 120f/P r.p.m.

In this case, as stator is wound for say 2 poles, with 50 Hz supply, the speed of the rotating magnetic
field will be 3000 r.p.m. This effect is similar to the physical rotation of two poles with a speed of
Ns r.p.m. For simplicity of understanding let us assume that the stator poles are N1 and S1 which are
rotating at a speed of Ns. The direction of rotation of rotating magnetic field is say clockwise.
When the field winding on rotor is excited by a d.c. supply, it also produces two poles, assuming rotor
construction to be two pole, salient type. Let these poles be N2 and S2.
Now one magnet is rotating at Ns having poles N1 and S1 while at start rotor is stationary i.e. second
magnet is stationary having poles N2 and S2. If somehow the unlike poles N1 and S2 or S1 and N2 are
brought near each other, the magnetic locking may get established between stator and rotor poles. As
stator poles are rotating due to magnetic locking rotor will also rotate in the same direction as that of
stator poles i.e. in the direction of rotating magnetic field, with the same speed i.e Ns. Hence synchronous
motor rotates at one and only one speed i.e. synchronous speed. But this all depends on existence of
magnetic locking between stator and rotor poles. Practically it is not possible for stator poles to pull the
rotor poles from their stationary position into magnetic locking condition. Hence synchronous motors
are not self starting. Let us see the reason behind this in detail.

Why synchronous Motor Is Not Self Starting?

Consider the rotating magnetic field as equivalent to physical rotation of two stator poles N1 and S1.

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Consider an instant when two poles are at such a position where stator magnetic axis is vertical, along
A-B as shown in the Fig. 1(a).
At this instant, rotor poles are arbitrarily positioned as shown in the Fig. 1.
At this instant, rotor is stationary and unlike poles will try to attract each other. Due to this rotor will be
subjected to an instantaneous torque in anticlockwise direction as shown in the Fig. 1(a).
Now stator poles are rotating very fast i.e. at a speed Ns r.p.m. Due to inertia, before rotor hardly rotates
in the direction of anticlockwise torque, to which it is subjected, the stator poles change their positions.
Consider an instant half a period latter where stator poles are exactly reversed but due to inertia rotor is
unable to rotate from its initial position. This is shown in the Fig.1(b).

Fig 1
At this instant, due to the unlike poles trying to attract each other, the rotor will be subjected to a torque
in clockwise direction. This will tend to rotate rotor in the direction of rotating magnetic field. But before
this happen, stator poles again change their position reversing the direction of the torque exerted on the
rotor.
Key Point : As a result, the average torque exerted on the rotor is zero. And hence the synchronous
motor is not self starting.
Note : The question is obvious that will happen if by chance the rotor position is in such a way that the
unlike rotor and stator poles are facing each other ? But owing to the large inertia of the rotor, the rotor
fails to rotate along with the stator poles. Hence again the difference of position of magnetic axes gets
created and rotor gets subjected to quickly reversing torque. This is because the speed with which
rotating magnetic field is rotating is so high that it is unable to rotate the rotor from its initial position,
due to the inertia of the rotor. So under any case, whatever may be the starting position of the rotor,
synchronous motor is not self starting.

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Analysis of Phasor Diagram:

Consider a phasor diagram with normal excitation i.e. such a current through field winding which will
produce flux that will adjust magnitude of Ebph same as Vph.
Let δ be the load angle corresponding to the load on the motor. So from the exact opposing position of
Ebph with respect to Vph. Ebph gets displaced by angle δ.
Vector difference of Ebph and Vph, gives the phasor which represents Ia Zs, called ERph.
Now Zs = Ra + j Xs Ω
where Ra = Resistance of stator per phase
Xs = Synchronous reactance of stator per phase
i.e. θ = tan-1 (Xs/Ra)
and | Zs | = √(Ra2 + R 2) Ω
This angle 'θ' is called internal machine angle or an impedance angle.
The significant of 'θ' is that it tells us that phasor Iaph lags behind ERph i.e. Ia Zsby angle θ. Current
always lags in case of inductive impedance with respect to voltage drop across that impedance. So phasor
Iaph can be shown lagging with respect to ERph by angle θ. Practically Ra is very small compared to
Xa and hence θ tends to 90o.
Note : The power factor at which motor is running, gets decided by the angle between Vph and Iaph
shown. This angle is denoted as Φ and called power factor angle.

and cos Φ = Power factor at which motor is working.

The nature of this p.f. is lagging if Iaph lags Vph by angle Φ. While it is leading if Iaph leads Vph by
angle Φ. Phasor diagram indicating all the details is shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Phasor diagram under normal working condition Behaviour of Synchronous Motor on
Loading:

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When a d.c. motor or an induction motor is loaded, the speed of the motors drops. This is because the
load torque demand increases then the torque produced by the motor. Hence motor draws more current
to produce more torque to satisfy the load but its speed reduces. In case of synchronous motor speed
always remains constant equal to the synchronous speed, irrespective of load condition. It is interesting
to study how synchronous motor reacts to changes in the load condition.
In a d.c. motor, armature develops an e.m.f. after motoring action starts, which opposes supply voltage,
called back e.m.f. Eb.
Hence if Ra the armature resistance and V is the supply voltage, we have established the relation for the
armature current as,
Ia = (V- Eb) / Ra ................................................ for a d.c. motor
where Eb = ΦPNZ / 60A ........................... for a d.c. motor

In case of synchronous motor also, once rotor starts rotating at synchronous speed, the stationary stator
(armature) conductors cut the flux produced by rotor. The only difference is conductors are stationary
and flux is rotating. Due to this there is an induced e.m.f. in the stator which according to Lenz's law
opposes the supply voltage. This induced e.m.f. is called back
e.m.f. in case of synchronous motor. It is obtained as Ebph i.e. back e.m.f. per phase. This gets generated
as the principle of alternator and hence alternating in nature and its magnitude can be calculated by the
equation,

or Ebph α Φ
As speed is always synchronous, the frequency is constant and hence magnitude of such back e.m.f. can
be controlled by changing the flux Φ produced by the rotor.
So back e.m.f. in case of synchronous motor depends on the excitation given to the field winding and not
on the speed, as speed is always constant.
As stator construction is similar to the armature of a three phase alternator, the impedance of the stator
is called synchronous impedance of synchronous motor consisting of Ra as the stator winding resistance
and Xs as the synchronous reactance. All the values are generally expressed on per phase basis.
Zs = Ra + jXs Ω per phase
So similar to the d.c. motor, we can write voltage equation for a synchronous motor as,

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The difference is that this equation is vector equation as each quantity is alternating and has different
phase. So addition is to be performed vectorially to obtain the result.

where Vph is the supply voltage per phase. The magnitude of Ebph is adjusted almost equal to Vph, on
no load by controlling flux produced by rotor i.e. field winding.

Ideal Condition on No Load

The ideal condition on no load can be assumed by neglecting various losses in the motor. And Vph =
Ebph
Under this condition, the magnetic locking between stator and rotor is in such a way that the magnetic
axes of both, coincide with each other as shown in the Fig.1. As this is possible only under no losses
condition, is said to be ideal in case of synchronous motor.

Fig. 1 Magnetic locking under no load condition

As magnitude of Ebph and Vph is same and opposes the phasor diagram for this condition can be shown
as in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Phasor diagram on no load losses

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In practice this is impossible. Motor has to supply mechanical losses and iron losses along with small
copper losses. Let us see how it can be explained in case of synchronous motor.

Synchronous Motor on No Load (With Losses):

We have seen that Ebph and Vph are magnitude wise same, which is adjusted by controlling field
current, in turn controlling the flux.
Now due to the various losses practically present on no load, the magnetic locking exists between
stator and rotor but in such a way that there exists a small angle difference between the axes of two
magnetic fields as shown in the Fig.3.

Fig. 3 Magnetic locking under practical condition

So the rotor axis falls back with respect to stator axis by angle 'δ' as shown in the Fig.3 This
angle decides the amount of current required to produce the torque to supply various losses.
Hence this angle is called load angle, power angle, coupling angle, torque angle or angle of retardation
and denoted as δ as mentioned earlier.
The magnetic locking still exists between the two and rotor rotates at synchronous speed along with
rotating magnetic field maintaining angle difference between the axes of two fields, as shown in the
Fig.3(b). The flux lines between the two get stretched due to such retardation of rotor axis with respect
to stator. Now though │Ebph │ = │ Vph │, Ebph will not be located in exact opposition with Vph
, but will get displaced from its initial position by angle 'δ' as shown in the Fig. 4(a).

Fig. 4(a) Phasor diagram for no load condition with losses

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Hence the vector difference between the two, Ebph and Vph is not zero but give rise to a phasor 'OB'
as shown.

This resultant decides the amount of current Iaph to be drawn to produce the torque which meets the
various losses present in the synchronous motor. Under no load condition, δ is very small and hence
ERph is also very small. So current drawn by the motor is also very small on no load which is the case
in all the various type of motors.

Synchronous Motor on Load:

As the load on the synchronous motor increases, there is no change in its speed. But what gets affected
is the load angle 'δ' i.e. the angle by which rotor axis retards with respect to stator axis.
Hence as load increases, δ increases but speed remains synchronous.
As δ increases, though Ebph and Vph magnitudes are same, displacement of Ebph from its ideal position
increases.

As synchronous impedance is constant, the magnitude of Iaph drawn by the motor increases as load
increases. This current produces the necessary torque which satisfied the increased load demand. The
magnetic locking still exists between the rotor and stator.
The phasor diagrams showing ERph increases as load increases are shown in the Fig. 4(b) and (c).

Fig 4
So from the above discussion it is clear that on no load, current drawn by the motor is very small. This
is because the stator and the rotor magnetic axes are almost matching transformer each other i.e. load
angle δ is very small. As load increases, rotor magnetic axis starts retarding with respect to stator axis

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i.e. load angle δ increases maintaining the magnetic locking condition. And hence in case of the
synchronous motor load affects the angle δ without affecting the speed. As δ increases, the magnitude
of ERph increases which shows that motor draws more current from the supply. This satisfies the
increased load torque demand.
So torque produced in the synchronous motor depends on the load angle 'δ' for small values of and to
be precise depends on 'sinδ'. The load angle 'δ' is measured in degrees electrical. As angle δ increases,
the magnetic flux lines producing the force of attraction between the two get more and more stretched.
This weakens the force maintaining the magnetic locking, though torque produced by the motor
increases. As δ reaches upto 90o electrical i.e. half a pole pitch, the stretched flux lines get broken and
hence magnetic locking between the stator and rotor no longer exists. The motor comes out of
synchronism. So torque produced at δ equal to 90o electrical is the maximum torque, a synchronous
motor can produce, maintaining magnetic locking i.e. synchronism. Such s torque is called pull out
torque. The relationship between torque produced and load angle is shown in the Fig 5.

Fig. 5 Torque angle characteristic

Blondel Diagram { Constant Power Circle):
The Blondel diagram of a synchronous motor is an extension of a simple phasor diagram of
a synchronous motor.
For a synchronous motor, the power input to the motor per phase is given
by, Pin = Vph Iph cosΦ ............................... per phase
The gross mechanical power developed per phase will be equal to the difference between Pin per phase
and the per phase copper losses of the winding.
Copper loss per phase = (Iaph)2 Ra
Pm = Vph Iph cosΦ - (Iaph)2 Ra ....................................per phase
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For mathematical convenience let Vph = V and Iaph = I,

Pm = VI cos - I2 Ra
I2 Ra - VI cos + Pm = 0

Now consider the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
The equation (1) represents polar equation to a circle. To obtain this circle in a phasor diagram, draw a
line OY at an angle θ with respect to OA.

Fig. 2 Blondel diagram

The circle represented by equation (1) has a centre at some point O' on the line OY. The circle drawn
with centre as O' and radius as O'B represents circle of constant power. This is called Blondel diagram,
shown in the Fig. 2.
Thus if excitation is varied while the power is kept constant, then working point B while move along the
circle of constant power.
Let O'B = Radius of circle = r OO' = Distant d Applying cosine rule to triangle OBO',

Now OB represents resultant ER which is Ia Zs. Thus OB is proportional to current and when referred
to OY represents the current in both magnitude and phase.
OB = Ia = I say
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Substituting various values in equation (2) we get, r2 = I2 + d2 - 2dI cosΦ

Comparing equations (1) and (3) we get,

Thus the point O' is independent of power Pm and is a constant for a give motor operating at a fixed
applied voltage V. Comparing last term of equations (1) and (3),

The equation shows that as power Pm must be real, then 4Pm Ra ≥ V2 . The maximum possible power
per phase is,

And the radius of the circle for maximum power is zero. Thus at the time of maximum power, the circles
becomes a point O'.
While when the power Pm = O, then r = V/2Ra = OO'
This shows that the circle of zero power passes through the points O and A. The radius for any power
Pm is given by,

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This is generalized expression for the radius for any power.

Operation of S.M. at constant Load Variable Excitation:

We have seen previously that when load changes, for constant excitation, current drawn by the motor
increases. But if excitation i.e. field current is changed keeping load constant, the synchronous motor
reacts by changing its power factor of operation. This is most interesting feature of synchronous
motor. Let us see the details of such operation.
Consider a synchronous motor operating at a certain load. The corresponding load angle is δ.
At start, consider normal behaviour of the synchronous motor, where excitation is adjusted to get Eb
= V i.e. induced e.m.f. is equal to applied voltage. Such an excitation is called Normal Excitation of
the motor. Motor is drawing certain current from the supply and power input to the motor is say Pin.
The power factor of the motor is lagging in nature as shown in the Fig. 1(a).
Now when excitation is changed, changes but there is hardly any change in the losses of the motor.
So the power input also remains same for constant load demanding same power output.
Now Pin = √3 VL IL cos Φ = 3 (Vph Iph cos Φ)
Most of the times, the voltage applied to the motor is constant. Hence for constant power input as Vph
is constant, 'Iph cos Φ' remains constant.
Note : So far this entire operation of variable excitation it is necessary to remember that the cosine
component of armature current, Ia cosΦ remains constant.
So motor adjusts its cos Φ i.e. p.f. nature and value so that Ia cos Φ remains constant when excitation
of the motor is changed keeping load constant. This is the reason why synchronous motor reacts by
changing its power factor to variable excitation conditions.

Under Excitation:
When the excitation is adjusted in such a way that the magnitude of induced e.m.f. is less than the
applied voltage (Eb < V) the excitation is called Under Excitation.
Due to this, ER increases in magnitude. This means for constant Zs, current drawn by the motor
increases. But ER phase shifts in such a way that, phasor Ia also shifts (as ER ^ Ia = θ) to keep Ia cos
Φ component constant. This is shown in the Fig. 1(b). So in under excited condition, current drawn
by the motor increases. The p.f. cos Φ decreases and becomes more and more lagging in nature.

Over Excitation :
The excitation to the field winding for which the induced e.m.f. becomes greater than applied voltage
(Eb < V), is called over excitation.
Due to increased magnitude of Eb, ER also increases in magnitude. But the phase of ER also changes.
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Now = ER ^ Ia = θ is constant, hence Ia also changes its phase. So Φ changes. The Ia increases to
keep Ia cos Φ constant as shown in Fig.1(c). The phase of ER changes so that Ia becomes leading
with respect to Vph in over excited condition. So power factor of the motor becomes leading in nature.
So overexcited synchronous motor works on leading power factor. So power factor decreases as over
excitation increases but it becomes more and more leading in nature.

Critical Excitation:
When the excitation is changed, the power factor changes. The excitation for which the power factor
of the motor is unity (cos Φ = 1) is called critical excitation. Then Iaph is in phase with Vph. Now Ia
cos Φ must be constant, cos Φ = 1 is at its maximum hence motor has to draw minimum current from
supply for unity power factor condition. So for critical excitation, cos Φ = 1 and current drawn by the
motor is minimum compared to current drawn by the motor for various excitation conditions. This is
shown in the Fig. 1(d).

Fig. 1 Constant load variable excitation operation

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V-Curves and Inverted V-Curves:

From the previous article, it is clear that if excitation is varied from very low (under excitation) to very
high (over excitation) value, then current Ia decreases, becomes minimum at unity p.f. and then again
increases. But initial lagging current becomes unity and then becomes leading in nature. This can be
shown as in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
Excitation can be increased by increasing the field current passing through the field winding of
synchronous motor. If graph of armature current drawn by the motor (Ia) against field current (If) is
plotted, then its shape looks like an english alphabet V. If such graphs are obtained at various load
conditions we get family of curves, all looking like V. Such curves are called V- curves of
synchronous motor. These are shown in the Fig. 2a).
As against this, if the power factor (cos Φ) is plotted against field current (If), then the shape of the
graph looks like an inverted V. Such curves obtained by plotting p.f. against If, at various load
conditions are called Inverted V-curves of synchronous motor. These curves are shown in the Fig.
2(b).

Fig. 2 V-curves and Inverted -Vcurves

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Special Machines:
Linear Induction Motor:
The linear induction motor works on the same principle as that of normal induction motor with
difference that instead of rotational movement, the rotor moves linearly. If the stator and rotor of the
induction motor are made flat then it forms the linear induction motor. The flux produced by the flat
stator moves linearly with the synchronous speed from one end to the other. The synchronous speed
is given by,
vs = 2wf
where vs = Linear Synchronous Speed (m/s) w = Width of one pole pitch
(m) f = Frequency of supply (Hz)
It can be seen that the synchronous speed is independent of number of poles but depends only one
width of pole pitch and supply frequency. The schematic of linear induction motor is shown in the
Fig. 1.

Fig (1)
the practical applications the rotor plate is a stationary member whereas stator moves. The analysis of
linear machines is nearly same as that of rotating machines. All the angular dimensions and
displacements are displaced by linear ones and torque is replaced by the force. The expressions for
machine parameters are derived analogously and the results are similar in form. Some of the typical
results are as given below,

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The linear induction motors are widely used in transportation fields i.e. in electric trains. The stator is
mounted on the moving vehicle and a conducting stationary rotor forming the rails. The induced
currents in the rail not only force the stator to move but also provide magnetic levitation in which the
train floats in air above the track. This mechanism proves better for high speed transportation without
the difficulties associated with wheel-rail interactions present in conventional rail transport. Thus the
trains may have speed of about 300 km/hr. A powerful electromagnet fixed underneath the train moves
across the rails which are conducting. The induces the currents in the rail which provides levitation so
that the train is pushed up above the track in the air. The operation of such system is automatic and the
system is reliable and safe.
Linear motors also find application in the machine tool industry and in robotics where linear motion is
required for positioning and for operation of the manipulators. In addition to this, reciprocating
compressors can also be driven by the linear machines.

A.C. Servomotor:
Most of the servomotors used in the low power servomechanism are a.c. servomotors. The a.c.
servomotor is basically two phase induction motor. The output power of a.c. servomotor varies from
fraction of watts to few hundred of watts. The operating frequency is 50 Hz to 400 Hz.

Construction:
The a.c. servomotor is basically consists of a stator and a rotor. The stator carries two windings,
uniformly distributed and displaced by 90o in space, from each other.
On winding is called as main winding or fixed winding or reference winding. The reference winding is
excited by a constant voltage a.c. supply.

The other winding is called as control winding. It is excited by variable control voltage, which is
obtained from a servo amplifier. The winding are 90o away from each other and control voltage is 90o
out of phase with respect to the voltage applied to the reference winding. This is necessary to obtain
rotating magnetic field.
The schematic stator is shown in the Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1 Stator of a.c. servomotor

To reduce the loading on the amplifier, the input impedance i.e. the impedance of the control winding
in increased by using a tuning capacitor in parallel with the control winding.

Rotor
The rotor is generally of two types. The two types of rotors are,
1. Squirrel cage rotor

2. Drag cup type rotor

Squirrel Cage Rotor

The usual squirrel cage rotor has aluminium bars which are shorted at the ends with the help of the end
rings. The overall construction looks like a cage. The construction is similar to the squirrel cage rotor
used for the three phase induction motors.
This has small diameter and large length. This is because to reduce the inertia. Aluminimum conductors
are used to keep weight small. Its resistance is high to keep torque-speed characteristics as linear as
possible. Air gap is kept very small which reduces the magnetism current. The cage type of rotor uses
the skewed bars as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Cage type rotor construction

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To reduce the inertia further, a drag cup type of rotor construction is used. There are two air gaps in
this construction. The drag cup is made up of nonmagnetic material like copper, aluminium or an alloy.
The slotted rotor laminations in this construction are wound for as many number of poles as possible
so that operating speed of motor is very low. Such a construction is used in very low power
applications. A drag cup type rotor construction is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Drag cup type rotor construction

Operating Principle :
The operating principle of two phase a.c. servomotor is same as that of normal three phase induction
motor. The control voltage applied to the control winding and the voltage applied to the reference
winding are 90o out of phase. Hence the flux produces by current through control winding is also 90o
out of phase with respect to the flux produced by the current through the reference winding. The
resultant flux in the air gap is hence rotating flux sweeps over the rotor, the e.m.f. gets induced in the
rotor. This e.m.f. circulates the current through the rotor. The rotor current produces its own flux
called as rotor flux. This flux interacts with the rotating magnetic field, producing a torque on the
rotor and rotor starts rotating.
In the two phase a.c. servomotors, the polarity of the control voltage determines the direction of
rotation. A change in the sign of the control voltage reverses the direction of rotation of the motor.
Since the reference voltage is constant, the torque and the angular speed are the functions of the
control voltage.

Torque-Speed Characteristics:
The usual torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor with high inductance to resistance ratio
are not suitable for the servomotor. A servomotor must have
1. Linear torque-speed characteristics
2. Slope of the torque-speed characteristics must be negative.

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3. The characteristics must be parallel to one another for various values of the control voltage applies.
It is seen that when rotor resistance is increased the torque-speed characteristics becomes more and
more linear. In general for low inductance to resistance ratio, the torque-speed characteristics are
almost linear. This is shown in the Fig. 4(a) and (b).

Fig. 4
In practice, design of the motor is so as to get almost linear torque-speed characteristics. A servomotor
rotates only when a detectable error occurs at low voltage and it rarely operates at high speeds. Hence
for a given value of control voltage, torque-speed characteristics are almost linear. Fig. 5 shows the
torque-speed characteristics for various control voltages

Fig. 5 Torque-speed characteristics of a.c servomotor

All the characteristics are equally spaced for equal increments of control voltage as shown.
1.5 Other Performance Characteristics
The performance characteristics other than the torque-speed characteristics of a two phase
a.c. servomotor are shown in the Fig. 6.

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Fig. 6 Performance characteristics of a typical a.c. servomotor

As torque developed increases, current drawn and the power input increases. Power factors also
improves upto certain limit. While the efficiency increases upto certain limit and then starts decreasing.
Features of A.C. Servomotor:
The various features of a.c. servomotor are,
1. Light in weight for quick response.

2. Robust in construction.

3. It is reliable and its operation is stable in nature.

4. Smooth and noise free operation.

5. Large torque to weight ratio.

6. Large resistance to reactance ratio.

7. No brushes or slip rings are required. Hence maintenance free.

8. Driving circuits are simple to design.
9. The negative slope of the torque-slip characteristics adds more friction improving the
damping. This improves the stability of the motor. This features is called internal electric
damping of two phase a.c. servomotors

Applications of A.C. Servomotor:

As mentioned earlier a.c. servomotor are preferred for low power applications. Consider an a.c. position
control system where load position is to be maintained constant. The driving motor used is two phase
a.c. servomotor. The potentiometer arrangement compares the actual position with the reference position
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to generate the error voltage. The error voltage is amplifier which generates control voltage . This voltage
is applied to the control winding of two phase a.c. servomotor. This control The torque and inturn
controls the output position of the load. As driving motor is a.c. servomotor, the system is called as a.c.
position control system. The entire scheme is shown in the Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

Application of a.c. servomotor

The other applications of a.c. servomotors are,
1. Instrument servos 2. Process controllers 3. Robotics
4. Self balancing recorders 5. Machine tools
And is preferred for number of other applications in which precise angular motion is necessary.

BLDC (Brushless DC) Motor

Construction:
The schematic diagram of BLDC Motor is as shown in Fig (3). A BLDC motor differs from a traditional
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DC motor in the following ways:

Stator: The stator contains windings that are connected to the power supply through an electronic
controller.

Rotor: Instead of a wound armature, the rotor is made of permanent magnets, which are either radially
or axially placed depending on the motor design.

Electronic Commutation: BLDC motors do not have brushes or a mechanical commutator. Instead, they
use an electronic controller (inverter) to switch the current between different windings.

Principle of Operation:

The BLDC motor operates on the same principle as a conventional DC motor, where force is generated
due to the interaction between the magnetic field and the current-carrying conductor. However, in BLDC
motors, the commutation of current is done electronically.

Hall effect sensors or a rotary encoder are used to detect the rotor position. Based on this position, the
controller switches the current through different windings, ensuring that the magnetic fields produced by
the stator continuously interact with the rotor's permanent magnets, creating a constant torque.

Since the motor is brushless, there is less mechanical wear, and it operates more efficiently. BLDC
motors are favoured in electric vehicles (EVs) due to their high efficiency, low maintenance, and precise
control capabilities.

Control:

Controlling a BLDC motor requires sophisticated electronics to manage the switching of the stator
windings. The control methods include:

1. Electronic Speed Control (ESC): This device regulates the motor speed by varying the timing and
magnitude of current supplied to the windings. The ESC interprets signals from the Hall effect sensors
or encoders to determine the rotor’s position and control the switching.

2. Think of this as the "brain" that controls the motor's speed. The ESC adjusts how much and when
electricity is sent to the motor's windings. It does this by reading signals from sensors (like Hall effect
sensors or encoders) that tell it the exact position of the motor’s rotor. Based on this information, the
ESC decides the best way to switch the electricity to keep the motor running smoothly.

3. PWM Control: Speed and torque are controlled by modulating the voltage applied to the stator
windings using PWM.

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How PWM Works:

Rapid Switching: The voltage is turned on and off at a very high frequency, typically thousands of times
per second (often in the range of 10 kHz to 20 kHz or even higher). This fast switching is too quick for us
to notice, so it seems like the motor is receiving a constant supply of power.

Duty Cycle: The "duty cycle" is the percentage of time the voltage is turned on within each switching
period. It controls the average voltage the motor receives:

1. A 100% duty cycle means the voltage is on all the time, supplying the full voltage to the motor.

2. A 50% duty cycle means the voltage is on half the time and off half the time, supplying about
half the average voltage.

3. A 25% duty cycle means the voltage is on for only a quarter of the time, resulting in a lower
average voltage.

Adjusting Speed and Torque: By changing the duty cycle, you control how much power reaches the motor.
For example: If you want the motor to run faster, you increase the duty cycle, meaning the voltage stays
on longer during each cycle. If you want the motor to slow down, you decrease the duty cycle, meaning
the voltage stays on for a shorter period.

1. Torque and Speed Control: This is achieved through current control (for torque) and voltage control (for
speed). Closed-loop control systems are often employed to ensure precise motor behavior in EV
applications.

Torque Control through Current Regulation: Torque is the rotational force generated by the motor, directly
related to the current. More current = more torque; less current = less torque.

Example: In an electric vehicle (EV), more current is supplied when starting or climbing a hill to provide
the necessary torque.

Speed Control through Voltage Regulation: The motor’s speed depends on the voltage supplied.

Increasing voltage speeds up the motor; decreasing voltage slows it down.

Example: In an EV, the controller raises voltage to accelerate the vehicle.

Closed-Loop Control System: Sensors monitor the motor's speed and torque, providing feedback to adjust
current and voltage for precise control. The system adjusts for differences between the desired and actual
performance, ensuring smooth operation. Ensures responsive and efficient control, crucial for EV
applications.

Example of Torque and Speed Control in EVs : Imagine you’re driving an electric car: When you press
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the accelerator pedal, you’re asking for more speed. The motor controller increases the voltage, which
raises the motor’s speed. If you start driving uphill, the motor needs more torque to maintain speed. The
closed-loop control system detects the increased load and responds by increasing the current, ensuring the
motor produces enough torque to keep moving.

Stepper Motors:
Stepper motor is known by its important property to convert a train of input pulses i.e. a square wave
pulses into a precisely defined increment in the shaft position. Each pulse moves the shaft through a
fixed angle. So the stepper motor is an electromechanical device which actuates a train of step
movements of shaft in response to train of input pulses. The step movement may be angular or linear.
There is one-one relationship between an input pulse and step movement of the shaft. Each pulse input
actuates one step movement of the shaft. When a given number of drive pulses are supplied to the
motor, the shaft gets turned through a known angle. The angle through which the motor turns or shaft
moves for each pulse is known as the step angle, expressed in degrees.

As such angle is dependent on the number of input pulses, the motor is suitable for controlling position
by controlling the number of input pulses. Such system, used to control the position is called position
control system. The average motor speed is proportional to the rate at which the input pulse command
is delivered. When the rate is low, the motor rotates in steps but for high rate of pulses, due to inertia, it
rotates smoothly like d.c. motors. Due to this property it is also used in speed control systems. These
motors are available in sub-fractional horse power ratings. As the input command is in pulses, the stepper
motor is compatible with modern digital equipments.
Due to its compatibility with digital equipment, its market is greatly increased in recent times. The
stepper motors are widely used in X-Y plotters, floppy disk drives, machine tools, process control
systems, robotics, printers, tap drives and variety of other industrial applications.

Types of Stepper Motors

The stepper motors can be divided into three categories :
1. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors
2. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motors
3. Hybrid Stepper Motors

Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors:

It is the most basic type of stepper motor. Thus helps to explain the principle of operation of the stepper

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motors.
The motors has a stator which is usually wound for three phases. The stator has six salient poles with
concentrated exciting windings around each one of them. The stator construction is laminated and
assembled in a single stack. The number of poles on the stator and rotor are different. This gives the
motor ability,
1. of bidirection rotation and
2. self starting capability.
The rotor is made out of slotted steel laminations. If the number of stator poles are Ns and the number
of rotor poles are Nr then for a three phase motor, the rotor poles interms of and q are given by,

For example for Ns = 6 and q =3, the rotor poles are,

For our discussion, 4 pole rotor construction is selected. So rotor has 4 salient poles without any
exciting winding as shown in the Fig.1

Fig. 1 Schematic arrangement of variable reluctance motor

The coils wound around diametrically opposite poles are connected in series and the three phases are
energized from a d.c. source with the help of switches. The basic driving circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Driving circuit

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Operation
The operation is based on various reluctance positions of rotor with respect to stator. When any one
phase of the stator is excited, it produces its magnetic field whose axis lies along the poles, the phase
around which is excited. Then rotor moves in such a direction so as to achieve minimum reluctance
position. Such a position means a position where axis of magnetic field of stator matches with the axis
passing through any two poles of the rotor. Let us see the operation when phases A, B and C are
energized in sequence one after the other, with the help of switches SW1, SW2 and SW3.
1. When the phase AA' is excited with the switch SW1 closed, then stator magnetic axis exists along
the poles formed due to AA' i.e. vertical. Then rotor adjusts itself in a minimum reluctance position
i.e. matching its own axis passing through the two poles exactly with stator magnetic axis. This
position is shown in the Fig. 3(a).

Fig. 3 Steps in variable reluctance motor

2. When the phase BB' is excited with the switch SW2 closed and phase AA' de-energized with the
switch SW1 open, then stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles formed due to BB;, shown dotted
in the Fig. 3(b). Then rotor tries to align in the minimum reluctance position and turns through 30o
in anticlockwise direction. So axis passing through two diagonally opposite poles of rotor matches
with the stator magnetic axis. This is the new minimum reluctance position. The point P shown on
the rotor has rotated through 30o in anticlockwise direction as shown in the Fig. 3(b).

3. When the phase CC' is excited with the switch SW3 closed and the phases AA' and BB' are de-
energized, then the stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles formed due to CC', shown dotted in
the Fig. 3(c). Then to achieve minimum reluctance position, rotor gets subjected to further
anticlockwise torque. So it turns through further 30o in anticlockwise direction. Hence point P is
now at 60o from its starting position, in anticlockwise direction as shown in the Fig. 3(c). By
successively exciting the three phases in the specific sequecnce, the motor takes twelve steps to
complete on revolution. Now if i is the current passing through the phase which is excited then the

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torque developed by the motor, which acts on the rotor is expressed as,

where L is the inductance of the relevant phase at an angle θ.

Since the torque is proportional to the torque of the phase current (T α i2), it is independent of the
direction of i. The direction of rotation is totally decided from the sequence in which the phases are
excited.

Important Observation:
From the above discussion, the following important observations can be made :
1. The rotor can be moved in a specific direction, by exciting the stator phases in a specific sequence.
2. When the phases are excited in the sequence A-B-C-A ...., the rotor moves in the
anticlockwise direction, as explained earlier.
3. When the phases are excited in the sequence C-B-A-C ..., the rotor moves in the clockwise
direction, which can be easily verified.
4. The distance through which the rotor moves when all three phases are excited once is
called one rotor tooth pitch. Rotor tooth pitch = 360o/Nr
5. The step angle is denoted as, and given by,

αs = 360o/qNr
So for three phases and four rotor poles the step angle is,

αs = 360o/(3 x 4) = 30o
This is shown in the previous section. If the number of phases are increased to eight and the number of
rotor poles to six then the step angle becomes,

αs = 360o/(8 x 6) = 7.5o
Microstepping:
In the above discussion we have assumed that the windings are excited one at a time. If the two phases
are excited simultaneously i.e. keeping AA' excited, the BB' is also excited with switch SW1 and SW2
closed, then the stator magnetic axis shifts to a mid position rather than along BB'. Hence rotor gets
aligned along this moves through a half step i.e. 15o. A logical extension of this technique is to control
the currents in the phase windings so that several stable equilibrium positions are created. Normally
the step angle is reduced by factor of 1/2, 1/5, 1/10, 1/16 or 1/32. This technique is called
microstepping.
A further reduction in step angle can be achieved by increasing the number of poles of the stator and
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rotor by adopting different constructions such as,

1. Using reduction gear mechanism.
2. Using multistack arrangement

Reduction Gear Stepper Motor:

Fig. 4 shows a reduction gear stepper motor. The stator has 8 salient poles and four phases for use as
exciting winding. The rotor has 18 teeth and 18 slots uniformly distributed around. Each salient pole
of the stator consists of two teeth, forming an interleaving slot of the same angular periphery as the
rotor teeth or slots. When the coil A-A' is excited, the resulting electromechanical torque brings the
rotor to the position as shown in the Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Reduction gear stepper motor

With this arrangement, the step angle reduces to 5. By successive excitation of coils A-A', B-B', C-C;
and D-D', the rotor makes 72 steps to complete one revolution. The general relationship between step
angle , number of stator phases q and rotor poles or teeth Nr remains same as,

αs = 360o/mNr
By choosing different combinations of number of rotor teeth and stator phases, any desired step angle
can be achieved.

Multitask Stepper Motor:

As mentioned earlier, these are used to obtain small step size, typically ranging between 2 to 15o. In a
m stack motor, the motor is divided into a m number of magnetically isolated sections called stacks,
along its axial length. The m stacks of stator have a common frame while the rotors are mounted on a
common shaft. The stators and rotors have the same number of poles (teeth). The stator poles in all m
stacks are aligned while the rotor poles are shifted by (1/m) of the pole pitch from one another. All the
stator windings in a stator stack are excited simultaneously hence each stator stack forms a phase. So
number of stator phases is equal to number of stator stacks. Generally three stack stepper motors are
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used. The Fig. f shows the arrangement in three stack stepper motor alongwith shifting of the rotor
poles by (1/3) of the pole pitch from one another.

Fig. 5 Reduction gear stepper motor

The Fig. 6 shows the cross sectional view of a three stack, three phase variable reluctance motor. In
each stack, the stator and rotor laminations have 12 poles. The poles of the stator are in one line while
the rotor poles are offset from each other by one third of the pole pitch.

Fig. 6 Cross sectional view of 3 stack variable reluctance motor

The various windings in one stack are energized simultaneously. When phase A of stator is excited
then rotor poles of stack A get aligned with the stator poles. But due to offset, rotor poles of stack B
and C do not align. Now if phase A is de-energized and phase B is energized, rotor poles of stack B
get aligned with the stator poles. Thus, rotor moves by one third of pole pitch.
When B is de-energized and C excited, rotor further moves by one third of pole pitch so that rotor
poles of stack C get aligned with the stator poles.
If m is the number of stacks i.e. phases and N be the rotor poles then the step angle is given by,

αs = 360o/mNr
In the case discussed above, m = 3 and N = 12 hence the step angle is,

αs = 360o/(3 x 12) = 10o

An alternative design where the rotor stacks are aligned and stator stacks are offset also is used
in practice.

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Advantages of Variable Reluctance Motor:

The variable reluctance stepper motor has following advantages.
1. High torque to inertia ratio
2. High rates of acceleration.
3. Fast dynamic response
4. Simple and low cost machine
5. Efficient cooling arrangement as all the windings are on stator and there is no winding on rotor.

Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor:

The stator of this type is multi-polar. As shown in the Fig. 7, the stator has four poles. Around the
poles the exciting coils are wound. The number of slots per pole per phase is usually chosen as one in
such multi-polar machines.

Fig. 7 Four phase permanent magnet stepper motor

The rotor may be salient or smooth cylindrical. But generally is is smooth cylindrical type as shown in
the Fig. 7. It is made out of ferrite material which permanently magnetized. Due to this the motor is
called permanent magnet stepper motor.
The voltage pulses to the stator winding can be obtained by using a driving circuit. The basic driving
circuit for four phase permanent magnet stepper motor is shown in the Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Basic drive circuit for permanent magnet four phase stepper motor.
Operation:
As soon as the voltage pulses are applied to various phases with the help of driving circuit, a rotor
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starts rotating through a step fir each input voltage pulse.

1. At first, switch SW1 is closed exciting the phase A. Due to its excitation we have N pole in
phase A as shown in the Fig. 9(a). Due to the electromechanical torque developed, rotor rotates
such that magnetic axis of permanent magnet rotor adjusts with the magnetic axis of the stator,
as shown in the Fig. 9(a).
2. Next phase B is excited with switch SW2, disconnecting phase A. Due to this, rotor further
adjusts its own magnetic axis with N pole of phase B. Hence it rotates through 90o further in
clockwise direction as shown in the Fig. 9(b).

Fig. 9 Steps in four phase permanent magnet stepper motor

Similarly when phase C and phase D are sequentially excited, the rotor tends to rotate through 90o in
clockwise direction, every time when phase is excited. When such sequence is repeated, it results into
a step motion of a permanent magnet stepper motor.
The stepper motors with permanent magnet rotors with large number of poles can not be
manufactured in small size. Hence small steps are not possible. This is the biggest disadvantages
of permanent magnet stepper motor. This is overcome by the use of variable reluctance type stepper

Comparison Between Variable Reluctance and Permanent Magnet Stepper

Motor

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However, nowadays a disk type of permanent magnet stepper motors are designed which have the low
inertia and smaller step angles.

Hybrid Stepper Motor:

The hybrid stepper motor uses the principles of the permanent magnet and variable reluctance stepper
motors. In the hybrid motors, the rotor flux is produced by the permanent magnet and is directed by the
rotor teeth to the appropriate parts of the airgap. The permanent magnet is placed in the middle of the
rotor. It is magnetized in the axial direction. Each pole of the magnet is surrounded with soft- toothed
laminations.
The construction of hybrid stepper motor is shown in the Fig. 10.

Fig. 10 Hybrid Stepper motor

The main flux path is from the north pole of the magnet, into the end stack, across the airgap through
the stator pole, axially along the stator, through the stator pole, across the airgap and back the magnet
south pole via other end stack.
There are usually 8 poles on the stator. Each pole has between 2 to 6 teeth. There is two phase winding.
The coils on poles 1, 3, 5 and 7 are connected in series to form phase A while the coils on poles 2, 4, 6
and 8 are connected in series to form phase B. The windings A and B are energized alternately.
When phase A carries positive current, stator poles 1 and 5 become south and 3 and 7 become north. The rotor
teeth with north and south polarity align with the teeth of stator pole 1 and 5 and 3 and 7 respectively. When
phase A is de-energized and phase B is excited, rotor will move by one quarter of tooth pitch. The torque in a
hybrid motor is produced by interaction of the rotor and the stator produced fluxes. The rotor field remains
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constant as it is produced by the permanent magnet. The motor torque Tm is proportional to the phase current.

Following are the main advantages of the hybrid stepper motor:

1. Very small step angles upto 1.8o
2. Higher torque per unit volume which is more than in case of variable reluctance motor.
3. Due to permanent magnet, the motor has some detent torque which is absent in variable
reluctance motor.

Applications of Stepper Motors:

Due to the digital circuit compatibility of the stepper motors, they are widely used in computer
peripherals such as serial printers, linear stepper motors to printers, tape drivers, floppy disc drivers,
memory access mechanism etc. The stepper motors are also used in serial printers in typewriters or
word processor systems, numerical control of machine tools, robotic control systems, number of
process control systems, actuators, spacecrafts, watches etc. X-Y recorders and plotters is another field
in which stepper motors are preferred.

Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM)

Switched reluctance motor works based on the variable reluctance principle. The rotating magnetic field
is created with the help of power electronics switching circuit.
The main concept is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is depending upon the air gap. Hence, by
changing the air gap between the rotor and stator, we can change the reluctance of the motor.

Note: reluctance is nothing but a resistance to the magnetic flux. (Opposes the magnetic flux. For
Electrical circuit it is resistance and magnetic circuit it is reluctance).

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Construction of SRM
In switched reluctance motor, the stator and rotor have projected pole made up of soft iron and silicon
stampings. Silicon stamping is used to reduce hysteresis losses.
Stator => Inward projection
Rotor => Outward projection.
The rotor does not have winding and stator only carries main field winding. Each winding in the stator
is connected in series with the opposite poles to increase the MMF of the circuit. It is called phase
winding. Refer to fig below. AA’, BB’ and CC’.

Pole concern, the number of poles in the stator will be around 6 to 8 numbers. But the rotor carries less
number of poles with respect to the stator. The rotor poles will be 4 to 8 numbers.
By increasing the number of poles we can get a low angle of rotation from the motor. The rotor’s shaft
is mounted with a position sensor. The position sensor is used to determine the position of the rotor by
a control circuit.
The control circuit always collects the information of the rotor position and based on that the controller
gives the input to the motor.

Block diagram of SRM

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The DC input is connected to the driver/converter circuit and the output is connected to the motor. The
rotor sensor’s feedback wire is connected to the controller circuit and it provides the position of the
rotor with reference to the reference axis. Finally, the controller collects all information and based on
that, reference will be given to the stator. Also, the controller monitors the motor current to protect the
motor from internal and external faults.
The converter circuit:

Also, note that the output of the controller is DC. And the output will be as shown in the figure below.

Working Principle
The working principle of switched reluctance motor is simple, let we take an iron piece. If we keep it in
a magnetic field means, the iron piece will align with the minimum reluctance position and get locked
magnetically.
The same principle is followed in the switched reluctance motor. The minimum reluctance portion of the
rotor tries to align itself with the stator magnetic field. Hence the reluctance torque is developed in the
rotor.
In our motor, let us consider the following notation for better understanding.
Stator Poles:
AA’ poles axis for A phase
BB’ poles axis for B phase
CC’ poles axis for C Phase
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 Electric Motors- 2 3 E E T 4 0 2 2024-25

Rotor poles:
aa’ rotor poles axis for Position 1
bb’ rotor poles axis for position 2
Now the input is given to the A-phase, other B and C phase neither maximum nor minimum, then stator
pole axis AA‘ and rotor pole axis aa‘ are in alignment. Ref picture Fig 1.4

Because the air gap between the stator and rotor is very less, and they are minimum reluctance position
as compared with other poles. Then,

Now, Phase A will be turned off and the B phase is energized. Then the rotor axis bb’ turns to stator axis
BB’. Move clockwise as per our diagram. By changing the polarity of the motor, we can easily reverse
the motor.
The torque develops since the reluctance changes from maximum to a minimum. The developed torque
is equal to

The rotor movement is depending upon the number of poles and in our case, we get 30 deg rotation by
energizing one phase at a time. Here torque is nothing but a rotor movement only. When the shaft reaches
to position BB’. Then there is no torque.

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 Electric Motors- 2 3 E E T 4 0 2 2024-25

Now the B phase will be turned off, and the C phase will be turned on. Then the torque is developed
because of rotor axis aa’ is aligned with the stator axis CC’. The rotor continues to rotate for another
30deg. Again C will be turned off and A will be stared. The motor operation continues until the input
power supply. Here you can observe that the motor is rotating by self. Thus Switched reluctance motors
are self-starting motor.
The control circuit continuously monitors the motor speed and input current. if the motor speed falls with
respect to the reference, then the control considers as there is a requirement of high torque.Therefore, it
increases the input current to the motor to meet the speed requirement. In case if the motor current is
reached beyond the full load current, it trips the motor.
Advantage of SRM
1. It does not require an external ventilation system as the stator and rotor slots projected. The
airflow maintained between the slots.
2. The rotor does not have winding since therefore no need keeps the carbon brush and slip ring
assembly.
3. Since the absence of permanent magnet, such motors are available at a cheaper price.
4. Simple three or two-phase pulse generator is enough to drive the motor
5. The direction of the motor can be reversed by changing the phase sequence.
6. Self-starting and does not require external arrangements.
7. Starting torque can be very high without excessive inrush currents.
8. High Fault Tolerance
9. Phase losses do not affect motor operations.
10. High torque/inertia ratio
11. High starting torque can be achieved.
Disadvantage of SRM
1. Creates Torque ripple at high-speed operation
2. The external rotor position sensor is required.
3. Noise level is high
4. At a higher speed, the motor generates harmonics, to reduce this, we need to install larger size
capacitors.
5. Since the absence of Permanent Magnet, the motor has to designed to carry high input current.
It increases the converter KVA requirement.
Application of SRM
Domestic appliances such as washing machines, vacuum cleaners, fans etc.
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