THERMODYNAMICS

and HEAT
TRANSFER
 CHAPTER 2

ENERGY, ENERGY
TRANSFER AND
GENERAL ENERGY
2–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
2–2 ■ FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as

thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical, and nuclear (Fig. 2–3), and
their sum constitutes the total energy E of a
system. The total energy of a system on a unit
mass basis is denoted by e and is expressed as:

In thermodynamic analysis, it is often helpful

to consider the various forms of energy that
make up the total energy of a system in two
groups: macroscopic and microscopic.
 MACROSCOPIC FORM OF ENERGY

The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system

possesses as a whole with respect to some outside
reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies
(Fig. 2–4).
The macroscopic energy of a system is related to motion
and the influence of some external effects such as gravity,
magnetism, electricity, and surface tension. The energy
that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative
to some reference frame is called kinetic energy (KE).
When all parts of a system move with the same velocity,
the kinetic energy is expressed as

or, on a unit mass basis,

MACROSCOPIC FORM OF ENERGY
where V denotes the velocity of the system relative to some fixed reference frame. The
kinetic energy of a rotating solid body is given by _12 I ω 2 where I is the moment of inertia of
the body and ω is the angular velocity.

The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field is
called potential energy (PE) and is expressed as

or, on a unit mass basis,

where g is the gravitational acceleration and z is the elevation of the center of gravity of a
system relative to some arbitrarily selected reference level.
MICROSCOPIC FORM OF ENERGY

The microscopic forms of energy are those

related to the molecular structure of a system
and the degree of the molecular activity, and
they are independent of outside reference
frames. The sum of all the microscopic forms
of energy is called the internal energy of a
system and is denoted by U.
TOTAL ENERGY
The magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects are significant in
some specialized cases only and are usually ignored. In the absence of
such effects, the total energy of a system consists of the kinetic,
potential, and internal energies and is expressed as

or, on a unit mass basis

Kinetic Kinetic energy per unit
energy mass

Potential Potential energy per unit

energy mass
Total energy of a
system
Energy of a system
per unit mass
ENERGY FLOW RATE
The mass flow rate m・ , which is the amount of mass flowing
through a cross section per unit time. It is related to the volume
flow rate V ・ , which is the volume of a fluid flowing through a
cross section per unit time, by

which is analogous to m = ρ V . Here ρ is the fluid density, Ac is the

cross-sectional area of flow, and Vavg is the average flow velocity
normal to Ac. The dot over a symbol is used to indicate time rate
throughout the book. Then the energy flow rate associated with a
fluid flowing at a rate of m・ is (Fig. 2–5)

which is analogous to E = me.

INTERNAL ENERGY
Translational energy-The molecules of a gas move
through space with some velocity, and thus they
possess some kinetic energy.

Rotational kinetic energy-The atoms of polyatomic

molecules rotate about an axis, and the energy
associated with this rotation

Vibrational kinetic energy- The atoms of a

polyatomic molecule may also vibrate about their
common center of mass, and the energy associated
with this back-and-forth motion.
INTERNAL ENERGY
Rotational kinetic energy- The electrons in an
atom rotate about the nucleus and thus possess.

Rotational kinetic energy-The atoms of polyatomic

molecules rotate about an axis, and the energy
associated with this rotation

Spin energy- Electrons also spin about their axes,

and the energy associated with this motion.
INTERNAL ENERGY
Sensible energy -The portion of the
internal energy of a system
associated with the kinetic energies
of the molecules.
Latent energy - The internal energy
associated with the phase of a
system.
Chemical energy- The internal
energy associated with the atomic
bonds in
a molecule .
INTERNAL ENERGY
Nuclear energy-The tremendous
amount of energy associated with
the strong bonds within the nucleus
of the atom itself.
THERMAL ENERGY
Heat Transfer -An energy interaction is heat
transfer if its driving force is a temperature
difference.
Thermal energy-The sensible and
latent forms of internal energy.

Thermal = Sensible + Latent

MECHANICAL ENERGY
Mechanical energy-The form of energy
that can be converted to mechanical
work completely and directly by an
ideal mechanical device such as an
ideal turbine.
A pump transfers mechanical energy to a
fluid by raising its pressure, and a turbine
extracts mechanical energy from a fluid by
dropping its pressure. Therefore, the
pressure of a flowing fluid is also
associated with its mechanical energy.
MECHANICAL ENERGY

Flow work- A pressure force acting on a fluid

through a distance produces work.

Flow energy- A Flow work is expressed in terms of

fluid properties, and it is convenient to view it as
part of the energy of a flowing fluid.
MECHANICAL ENERGY
Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of
mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy of a Rate of mechanical energy of a flowing

flowing fluid per unit mass fluid

Mechanical energy of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit

mass

Rate of mechanical energy change of a fluid during

incompressible
ENERGY TRANSFER
Ø Energy transfer by Heat

Ø Energy transfer by Work

Ø Energy transfer by Mass

ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Energy can cross the boundary of a closed
system in two distinct forms: heat and work (Fig.
2–14)
When a body is left in a medium that is at a
different temperature, energy transfer takes place
between the body and the surrounding medium
until thermal equilibrium is established, that is,
the body and the medium reach the same
temperature
The direction of energy transfer is always from the
higher temperature body to the lower temperature
one. Once the temperature equality is established,
energy transfer stops. In the processes described
above, energy is said to be transferred in the form
of heat
ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat . The form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference

Heat flow, heat addition, heat rejection, heat

absorption, heat removal, heat gain, heat loss, heat
storage, heat generation, electrical heating,
resistance heating, frictional heating, gas heating,
heat of reaction, liberation of heat, specific heat,
sensible heat, latent heat, waste heat, body heat,
process heat, heat sink, and heat source
are not consistent with the strict thermodynamic
meaning of the term heat, which limits its use to
the transfer of thermal energy during a process
ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat transfer q = specific
per unit mass heat
Amount of heat
transfer when heat
transfer rate is
constant
Amount of heat
transfer when heat
transfer rate
changes with time
Energy is recognized
as heat transfer
only as it crosses the
system boundary.
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISM

Ø Conduction Ø Convection Ø Radiation

HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISM
Ø Conduction
The transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles.
Ø Convection
The transfer of energy between a solid surface and the adjacent
fluid that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
Ø Radiation
The transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic
waves (or photons).
ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
Work- The energy transfer associated with a force
acting through a distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing
the system boundaries are all associated with work interactions.

The work done during a process between states 1 and 2 is denoted by

W12, or simply W. The work done per unit mass of a system is denoted
by w and is expressed as:

The work done per unit time is called power and is

denoted W. The unit of power is kJ/s, or kW.
ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
Formal sign convention- Heat transfer to a system
and work done by a system are positive; heat
transfer from a system and work done on a system
are negative.

Alternative to sign convention- is to

use subscription in and out to
indicate direction
ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
Work done
per unit

Power is
the work
done per
unit time
(kW) Specifying the
directions of heat and
work.
HEAT and WORK
Ø Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they
cross the boundaries. That is,
.
Ø Systems possess energy, but not heat or
Ø work
Both are associated with a process, not a state.
Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning
at a state.
Ø Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes
depend on the path followed during a process
as well as the end states).
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

provides a sound basis for studying the relationships among the

various forms of energy and energy interactions.

The first law states

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Energy Balance
The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy
entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process.
Energy Change of a System, system
ΔE
 Eand Eou
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, in
t
 Eand Eou
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, in
t
ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES
is one of the most often used terms in thermodynamics,
and it
indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is
accomplished.

the energy delivered to the house by hot

water to the energy supplied to the water
heater.
ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES
The amount of heat released when a unit
amount of fuel at room temperature is completely burned and the
combustion products are cooled to the room temperature.

, when the water leaves as a

vapor
, when the water in the combustion
gases is completely condensed and thus the heat of vaporization is
also recovered