Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 6th Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill, 2008

Chapter 2
ENERGY, ENERGY
TRANSFER, AND GENERAL
ENERGY ANALYSIS

Mehmet Kanoglu

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Objectives
• Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms.
• Discuss the nature of internal energy.
• Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with energy
transfer by heat.
• Discuss the three mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
• Define the concept of work, including electrical work and several forms
of mechanical work.
• Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances, and
mechanisms of energy transfer to or from a system.
• Determine that a fluid flowing across a control surface of a control
volume carries energy across the control surface in addition to any
energy transfer across the control surface that may be in the form of
heat and/or work.
• Define energy conversion efficiencies.
• Discuss the implications of energy conversion on the environment. 2
 INTRODUCTION
• If we take the entire room—including the air and the refrigerator
(or fan)—as the system, which is an adiabatic closed system since
the room is well-sealed and well-insulated, the only energy
interaction involved is the electrical energy crossing the system
boundary and entering the room.
• As a result of the conversion of electric energy consumed by
the device to heat, the room temperature will rise.
A fan running in
a well-sealed and
well-insulated room
will raise the
temperature of air in
the room.

A refrigerator
operating with its
door open in a well-
sealed and well-
insulated room 3
 FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and
their sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
• Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
• Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a
whole with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic
and potential energies.
• Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the
molecular structure of a system and the degree of the
molecular activity.
• Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.

• Kinetic energy, KE: The energy

that a system possesses as a result
of its motion relative to some
reference frame.
• Potential energy, PE: The energy
that a system possesses as a result The macroscopic energy of an
of its elevation in a gravitational object changes with velocity and
field. elevation. 4
 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy
per unit mass

Mass flow rate

Potential energy

Potential energy
per unit mass Energy flow rate

Total energy
of a system

Energy of a system
per unit mass

Total energy
per unit mass 5
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy
Sensible energy: The portion
of the internal energy of a
system associated with the
kinetic energies of the
molecules.
Latent energy: The internal
energy associated with the
phase of a system.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the
atomic bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The
tremendous amount of energy
associated with the strong
The internal energy of a bonds within the nucleus of the
system is the sum of all forms
atom itself.
of the microscopic energies.
The various forms of
microscopic Thermal = Sensible + Latent
energies that make Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear 6
up sensible energy.
• The total energy of a system, can
be contained or stored in a system,
and thus can be viewed as the
static forms of energy.
• The forms of energy not stored in
a system can be viewed as the
dynamic forms of energy or as
energy interactions.
• The dynamic forms of energy are
recognized at the system boundary
as they cross it, and they represent
the energy gained or lost by a
system during a process. The macroscopic kinetic energy is an
• The only two forms of energy organized form of energy and is much
interactions associated with a more useful than the disorganized
closed system are heat transfer microscopic kinetic energies of the
and work. molecules.

• The difference between heat transfer and work: An energy interaction is

heat transfer if its driving force is a temperature difference. Otherwise it is
work. 7
More on Nuclear Energy
• The best known fission reaction
involves the split of the uranium atom
(the U-235 isotope) into other
elements and is commonly used to
generate electricity in nuclear power
plants (440 of them in 2004,
generating 363,000 MW worldwide), to
power nuclear submarines and aircraft
carriers, and even to power spacecraft
as well as building nuclear bombs.
• Nuclear energy by fusion is released
when two small nuclei combine into a
larger one.
• The uncontrolled fusion reaction was
achieved in the early 1950s, but all
the efforts since then to achieve
controlled
fusion by massive lasers, powerful
magnetic fields, and electric currents The fission of uranium and the fusion of
to generate power have failed. hydrogen during nuclear reactions, and
the release of nuclear energy. 8
Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such
as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy of a
flowing fluid per unit mass

Rate of mechanical
energy of a flowing fluid

Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit mass

Rate of mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow

9
ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is
transferred between two
systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.

Temperature difference is the driving

Energy can cross the force for heat transfer. The larger the
boundaries of a closed system temperature difference, the higher is the
in the form of heat and work. rate of heat transfer.
10
Heat transfer
per unit
mass
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
is constant
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
changes with time

Energy is
recognized
as heat
transfer only
as it crosses
the system
boundary.

During an adiabatic process, a system

exchanges no heat with its surroundings. 11
 Historical Background on Heat
• Kinetic theory: Treats molecules photons).
as tiny balls that are in motion
and thus possess kinetic energy.
• Heat: The energy associated
with the random motion of atoms
and molecules.
Heat transfer mechanisms:
• Conduction: The transfer of
energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a
result of interaction between
particles.
• Convection: The transfer of energy
between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid that is in motion, and
it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
• Radiation: The transfer of energy
due to the emission of
electromagnetic waves (or
In the early nineteenth century, heat
was thought to be an invisible fluid
called the caloric that flowed from
warmer bodies to the cooler ones.

12
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
• Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
 A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing
the system boundaries are all associated with work interactions
• Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a
system are negative.
• Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to
indicate direction. This is the primary approach in this text.

Work done
per unit mass

Power is the
work done per Specifying the directions
unit time (kW) of heat and work. 13
Heat vs. Work
• Both are recognized at the boundaries
of a system as they cross the
boundaries. That is, both heat and
work are boundary phenomena.
• Systems possess energy, but not heat
or work.
• Both are associated with a process,
not a state.
• Unlike properties, heat or work has
no meaning at a state.
• Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the
end states).
Properties are point functions; but
heat and work are path functions
Properties are point functions (their magnitudes depend on the
have exact differentials (d ). path followed).
Path functions
have inexact
differentials ( )
14
Electrical Work
Electrical work

Electrical power

When potential difference

and current change with time

Electrical power in terms of resistance

R, current I, and potential difference V.
When potential difference
and current remain
constant
15
 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
• There are two requirements for a work interaction between
a system and its surroundings to exist:
 there must be a force acting on the boundary.
 the boundary must move.

When force is not constant

Work = Force  Distance

If there is no movement,
no work is done.
The work done is proportional to the force
applied (F) and the distance traveled (s). 16
 Shaft A force F acting through
a moment arm r
Work generates a torque T

This force acts through a distance s

Shaft
work
The power transmitted through the shaft
is the shaft work done per unit time

Energy transmission through rotating shafts

is commonly encountered in practice.

17
of revolutions of the shaft.
a differential amount dx under the
When the length of the spring changes by influence of a force F, the work done
is
Spring Work
For linear elastic springs, the displacement Substituting and integrating yield
x is proportional to the force applied

x1 and x2: the initial and the final

displacements
k: spring constant (kN/m)

Elongation
of a spring
under the
influence
of
a force.

The
displacement
of a linear
spring doubles
when the force
18
is doubled.
Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars

Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film

Stretching
a liquid film
with a
movable
wire.

Solid bars
behave as
springs
under the
influence of 19
a force.
Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
1. The work transfer needed to raise a body is
equal to the change in the potential energy of the
body.
2. The work transfer needed to accelerate a body
is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of
the body.
Nonmechanical Forms of Work
Electrical work: The generalized force is the
voltage (the electrical potential) and the
generalized displacement is the electrical
charge. The energy
Magnetic work: The generalized force is the transferred to
magnetic field strength and the generalized a body while
being raised
displacement is the total magnetic dipole moment.
is equal to
Electrical polarization work: The generalized the change in
force is the electric field strength and the its potential
generalized displacement is the polarization of the energy.
medium.
20
 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy
principle) provides a sound basis for studying the relationships among the
various forms of energy and energy interactions.
• The first law states that energy can be neither created nor
destroyed during a process; it can only change forms.
• The First Law: For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of
a closed system, the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of
the closed system and the details of the process.

Energy
cannot be
created or
destroyed; The increase in the energy of a
it can only potato in an oven is equal to the
change amount of heat transferred to it.
forms. 21
 The work
(electrical) done
on an adiabatic
system is equal
to the increase
in the energy of
the system.

In the absence of any

work interactions, the
energy change of a The work (shaft)
system is equal to the done on an
net heat transfer. adiabatic system
is equal to the
increase in the
energy of the
system.
22
 Energy Balance
The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy
entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process.

The energy change

of a system during
a process is equal
to the net work and
heat transfer
between the
system and its
surroundings.

The work (boundary) done on an

adiabatic system is equal to the
increase in the energy of the system. 23
Energy Change of a System, Esystem

Internal, kinetic, and

potential energy changes

24
 Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
• Heat transfer
• Work transfer
• Mass flow (kJ)
A closed mass
involves only
heat transfer
and work.

For a cycle ∆E = 0, thus Q =

W.

The energy
content of a
control volume
can be changed
by mass flow as
well as heat and
work interactions. 25
 ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES
Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms in thermodynamics, and it
indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is accomplished.

Efficiency of a water
heater: The ratio of the
energy delivered to the
house by hot water to
the energy supplied to
the water heater.

The definition of
performance is not limited
to thermodynamics only. 26
Heating value of the fuel: The amount of heat released when a unit
amount of fuel at room temperature is completely burned and the
combustion products are cooled to the room temperature.
Lower heating value (LHV): When the water leaves as a vapor.
Higher heating value (HHV): When the water in the combustion gases is
completely condensed and thus the heat of vaporization is also recovered.

The efficiency of space heating

systems of residential and
commercial buildings is usually
expressed in terms of the annual
fuel utilization efficiency
(AFUE), which accounts for the
combustion efficiency as well as
other losses such as heat losses
to unheated areas and start-up
The definition of the heating value of and cooldown losses.
gasoline. 27
• Generator: A device that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy.
• Generator efficiency: The ratio of the electrical power output to
the mechanical power input.
• Thermal efficiency of a power plant: The ratio of the net
electrical power output to the rate of fuel energy input.
Overall
efficiency of a
power plant
Lighting efficacy:
The amount of light
output in lumens
per W of electricity
consumed.
A 15-W
compact
fluorescent
lamp provides
as much light
as a 60-W
incandescent
lamp. 28
• Using energy-efficient appliances
conserve energy.
• It helps the environment by reducing the
amount of pollutants emitted to the
atmosphere during the combustion of The efficiency of a cooking
fuel. appliance represents the
• The combustion of fuel produces fraction of the energy
supplied to the appliance that
• carbon dioxide, causes global warming
is transferred to the food.
• nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons,
cause smog
• carbon monoxide, toxic 29
• sulfur dioxide, causes acid rain.
Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
Mechanical efficiency

The effectiveness of the conversion process between

the mechanical work supplied or extracted and the
mechanical energy of the fluid is expressed by the
pump efficiency and turbine efficiency,

The mechanical
efficiency of a fan is the
ratio of the kinetic
energy of air at the
fan exit to the
mechanical
power input. 30
 Pump
efficiency

Generator
efficiency

Pump-Motor
overall efficiency

Turbine-Generator
overall efficiency

The overall efficiency of a

turbine–generator is the product
of the efficiency of the turbine
and the efficiency of the
generator, and represents the
fraction of the mechanical energy
of the fluid
converted to electric energy. 31
 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
• The conversion of energy from one form to another often affects the
environment and the air we breathe in many ways, and thus the study of
energy is not complete without considering its impact on the environment.
• Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are responsible for
smog, acid rain, and global warming.
• The environmental pollution has reached such high levels that it became
a serious threat to vegetation, wild life, and human health.

Motor vehicles are the largest source of air

pollution.

Energy conversion processes are often

accompanied by environmental pollution. 32
 Ozone and Smog
• Smog: Made up mostly of ground-level ozone (O3), but it also contains numerous other
chemicals, including carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter such as soot and dust,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, butane, and other hydrocarbons.
• Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react in the presence of sunlight on hot calm days
to form ground-level ozone.
• Ozone irritates eyes and damages the air sacs in the lungs where oxygen and carbon
dioxide are exchanged, causing eventual hardening of this soft and spongy tissue.
• It also causes shortness of breath, wheezing, fatigue, headaches, and nausea, and
aggravates respiratory problems such as asthma.

• The other serious pollutant in smog is carbon

monoxide, which is a colorless, odorless, poisonous
gas.
• It is mostly emitted by motor vehicles.
• It deprives the body’s organs from getting enough
oxygen by binding with the red blood cells that would
otherwise carry oxygen. It is fatal at high levels.
• Suspended particulate matter such as dust and soot
are emitted by vehicles and industrial facilities. Such
particles irritate the eyes and the lungs.

Ground-level ozone, which is the primary component

of smog, forms when HC and NOx react in the
 33
presence of sunlight in hot calm days.
 Acid Rain
• The sulfur in the fuel reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2), which is
an air pollutant.
• The main source of SO2 is the electric power plants that burn high-sulfur coal.
• Motor vehicles also contribute to SO2 emissions since gasoline and diesel fuel
also contain small amounts of sulfur.
• The sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react
with water vapor and other chemicals
high in the atmosphere in the presence of
sunlight to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
• The acids formed usually dissolve in
the suspended water droplets in clouds
or fog.
• These acid-laden droplets, which can be
as acidic as lemon juice, are washed
from the air on to the soil by rain or snow.
This is known as acid rain.

Sulfuric acid and nitric acid are formed

when sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react with
water vapor and other chemicals high in the
atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. 34
The Greenhouse
• Greenhouse effect: Glass allows the solar
Effect: Global radiation to enter freely but blocks the
Warming infrared radiation emitted by the interior
surfaces. This causes a rise in the interior
temperature as a result of the thermal
energy buildup in a space (i.e., car).
• The surface of the earth, which warms up
during the day as a result of the absorption
of solar energy, cools down at night by
radiating part of its energy into deep space
as infrared radiation.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, and
trace amounts of some other gases such
as methane and nitrogen oxides act like
a blanket and keep the earth warm at
night by blocking the heat radiated from
the earth. The result is global warming.
• These gases are called “greenhouse
gases,” with CO2 being the primary
The greenhouse effect on earth.
component.
• CO2 is produced by the burning of fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, and natural
ga3s5.
• A 1995 report: The earth has already warmed about 0.5°C during the last
century, and they estimate that the earth’s temperature will rise another 2°C by
the year 2100.
• A rise of this magnitude can cause severe changes in weather patterns with
storms and heavy rains and flooding at some parts and drought in others,
major floods due to the melting of ice at the poles, loss of wetlands and coastal
areas due to rising sea levels, and other negative results.
• Improved energy efficiency, energy conservation, and using renewable
energy sources help minimize global warming.

The average car produces several times its Renewable energies such as wind are
weight in CO2 every year (it is driven 20,000 called “green energy” since they emit no
km a year, consumes 2300 liters of gasoline, pollutants or greenhouse gases.
and produces 2.5 kg of CO2 per liter).
36
Summary
• Forms of energy
 Macroscopic = kinetic + potential
 Microscopic = Internal energy (sensible + latent + chemical + nuclear)
• Energy transfer by heat
• Energy transfer by work
• Mechanical forms of work
• The first law of thermodynamics
 Energy balance
 Energy change of a system
 Mechanisms of energy transfer (heat, work, mass flow)
• Energy conversion efficiencies
 Efficiencies of mechanical and electrical devices (turbines, pumps)
• Energy and environment
 Ozone and smog
 Acid rain
 The Greenhouse effect: Global warming
37