Life span development notes

1. Principles of Development

- Lifespan Perspective: The view that development occurs throughout the entire lifespan and is not confined to
childhood or adolescence. It includes changes in physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional aspects of life.

- Characteristics of Development:

- Lifelong: Development continues from birth to old age.

- Multidimensional: Involves biological (physical changes), cognitive (thought processes), and socio-emotional
(relationships, emotions) development.

- Multidirectional: Some abilities improve while others decline (e.g., language skills peak in early life, while
wisdom may increase later).

- Plastic: Development is flexible and can change due to experience and learning.

- Contextual: Influenced by historical, cultural, and social contexts.

- Multidisciplinary: Insights from psychology, sociology, neuroscience, and other fields contribute to
understanding development.i

- Normative vs. Non-normative Influences:

- Normative age-graded influences: Common experiences at certain ages (e.g., puberty, retirement).

- Normative history-graded influences: Events a ecting entire generations (e.g., wars, pandemics).

- Non-normative life events: Unusual occurrences impacting individuals (e.g., loss of a parent at a young age).

2. Research Methods in Life-Span Development

- Observation:

- Naturalistic Observation: Observing individuals in real-life settings without interference.

- Laboratory Observation: Controlled environment to observe behavior under specific conditions.

- Surveys & Interviews: Self-reported data collection methods using structured or open-ended questions.

- Tests: Tools designed to measure individual di erences with uniform procedures.

- Case Studies: In-depth examination of an individual or a small group, often used in rare conditions.

- Physiological Measures: Methods such as brain imaging (MRI, EEG) and hormone level testing.

- Research Designs:

- Cross-sectional: Di erent age groups studied at one time to identify di erences.

- Sequential: Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal methods.

- Ethics in Research:

- Informed Consent: Participants must be aware of the study and its risks.

- Confidentiality: Protection of participant data.

- Debriefing: Explanation of the study after participation.

- Deception: Allowed only if necessary and must be explained afterward.

3. Prenatal Stages

1. Germinal Period (0-2 weeks): The fertilised egg (zygote) undergoes cell division and implants into the uterine
wall.

2. Embryonic Period (3-8 weeks): Major organs and body structures form; the placenta and umbilical cord
develop to supply oxygen and nutrients.

3. Fetal Period (9 weeks-birth): Growth accelerates, the nervous system matures, and movement begins.

4. Genetics vs. Environment

- Nature (Genetics): The influence of hereditary factors like genes, intelligence, and physical traits.

- Nurture (Environment): The role of external influences, such as family, culture, and education.

- Behavior Genetics: The study of how genetics and environment interact in shaping behavior.

- Heredity-Environment Correlations:

- Passive: Parents provide both genes and environment (e.g., musical parents raising a musical child).

- Evocative: Child’s traits elicit responses from the environment (e.g., a cheerful baby gets more social
interaction).

- Active (Niche-picking): Individuals seek out environments that suit their genetic tendencies (e.g., an athletic
child chooses sports).

- Epigenetic View: Development results from bidirectional interactions between genes and the environment.

5. Teratogens

- Definition: Harmful agents that can cause birth defects or developmental issues.

- Factors A ecting Teratogen Impact:

- Dose: Higher doses increase risk.

- Genetic Susceptibility: Some individuals are more vulnerable.

- Timing of Exposure: The embryonic period is the most critical.

- Examples:

- Alcohol: Can cause Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), leading to intellectual disabilities.

- Nicotine: Increases risk of low birth weight and respiratory issues.

- Radiation & Pollution: Can cause genetic mutations or cancer.

- Maternal Diseases: Rubella, HIV, syphilis can harm fetal development.

6. Birth Stages

1. Stage 1: Labor begins with contractions, and the cervix dilates to 10 cm (lasting 6-12 hours in first-time
mothers).

2. Stage 2: The baby moves through the birth canal (usually lasting 45 minutes to 1 hour).

3. Stage 3: The placenta is delivered (within minutes after birth).

7. Apgar Scale

- A quick test assessing newborn health at 1 and 5 minutes after birth.

- Scored from 0-10 based on:

- Heart rate

- Respiratory e ort

- Muscle tone

- Reflex response

- Skin color

- Interpretation:

- 7-10: Healthy

- 4-6: May require medical attention

- 0-3: Critical condition

8. Reflexes

- Survival Reflexes:

- Rooting: Baby turns head when cheek is touched (helps with breastfeeding).

- Moro (Startle) Reflex: Arms extend when startled.

- Sucking: Automatic sucking for feeding.

- Primitive Reflexes:

- Grasping: Baby grips objects placed in palm.

- Stepping: Mimics walking when held upright.

- Babinski: Toes fan out when foot is stroked (disappears after infancy).

9. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Infants explore the world through senses and develop object permanence
(understanding that objects exist even when out of sight).
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Use of symbols and language increases, but thinking is egocentric (di culty
seeing others' perspectives) and lacks logical operations.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking develops, and children grasp the concept of
conservation (understanding quantity remains the same despite changes in shape).

4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Abstract and hypothetical thinking develops.

10. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can achieve
with guidance.

- Sca olding: Temporary support given to help a child learn a new task.

- Emphasis on social interaction and culture in learning.

11. Kohlberg and Piaget’s Moral Development Theories

Piaget’s Moral Development Theory

- Heteronomous Morality (4-7 years): Children view rules as fixed and unchangeable, set by authority figures.
They believe in immanent justice, meaning that breaking rules leads to automatic punishment.

- Autonomous Morality (10+ years): Children understand that rules are created by people and can be changed.
They develop a sense of fairness, considering intentions rather than just consequences.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s work and introduced three levels of moral reasoning, each containing two stages:

1. Pre-conventional Level (Childhood)

- Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation: Right and wrong are based on avoiding punishment.

- Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange: Actions are based on self-interest and rewards.

2. Conventional Level (Adolescence & Adulthood)

- Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships: Morality is based on social approval and being seen as “good.”

- Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order: Laws and social rules must be obeyed to maintain order.

3. Post-conventional Level (Adulthood, if reached)

- Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights: Laws are important but can be challenged for justice.

- Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles: Morality is based on abstract principles (e.g., human rights, justice).

12. Language Development Theories

Behaviorist Theory (B.F. Skinner)

- Language is learned through reinforcement and imitation.

- Children repeat words that are rewarded (e.g., praised for saying “mama”).
- Criticism: This theory does not explain how children create new sentences they have never heard before.

Nativist Theory (Noam Chomsky)

- Humans have an innate ability to acquire language.

- The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a mental structure that enables children to understand grammatical
rules naturally.

- Evidence: Children learn grammar rules even without direct instruction.

- Criticism: Does not explain the role of social interaction in learning language.

Interactionist Perspective

- Language development is influenced by both nature and nurture.

- Emphasizes social interaction, where caregivers and the child work together to develop language skills.

- Example: Parents speaking in child-directed speech (CDS) (higher pitch, exaggerated expressions) helps infants
learn language faster.

13. David Elkind’s Concepts of Adolescent Egocentrism

David Elkind expanded on Piaget’s ideas and identified two key aspects of adolescent egocentrism:

- Imaginary Audience: Adolescents believe they are constantly being watched and judged by others. This leads
to heightened self-consciousness and behaviors such as excessive grooming or worrying about public
embarrassment.

- Example: A teenager avoids school because they believe everyone will notice their acne.

- Personal Fable: Adolescents believe they are unique and invulnerable, leading to risky behaviors.

- Example: A teenager engages in reckless driving, thinking, “It won’t happen to me.”

- This can also manifest as feelings of isolation, believing that no one understands their struggles.

14. Marcia’s Identity Status Theory

James Marcia expanded on Erikson’s concept of identity vs. role confusion by describing four identity statuses:

1. Identity Di usion

- No exploration, no commitment.

- Individuals lack direction and do not consider future goals.

- Example: A high school senior who hasn’t thought about career plans or college.

2. Identity Foreclosure

- Commitment without exploration.

- Adopting parental or societal beliefs without questioning them.

3. Identity Moratorium

- Active exploration without commitment.

- Trying di erent roles, questioning values, and delaying commitments.

- Example: A college student switching majors multiple times before deciding on one.

4. Identity Achievement

- Explored various options and made a commitment.

- Strong sense of self and personal values.

- Example: A young adult who has researched di erent career paths and confidently chosen one.