THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Having introduced limits and continuous functions, we are now ready to define what we mean by
the derivative of a function. Before limits, to see how fast a function changes at a point, we could only
use an approximation on an interval containing the point: you may recall from your previous courses that
the average rate of change of a function on the interval [ a, b] is the slope of a secant line from ( a, f ( a)) to
(b, f (b)).

Example 1. Let f ( x ) = x2 .
(a) Sketch the graph of f ( x ).

(b) Find the average rate of change of f ( x ) on [1, 2].

(c) Find the average rate of change of f ( x ) on [1, 1.1].

(d) Find the average rate of change of f ( x ) on [1, 1.01].

(e) Make a guess: if we consider the interval [1, 1 + h] where h > 0 is getting smaller and smaller, what
would the average rate of change be?

1
2 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

In the above example, we let the interval over which we were computing the average rate of change
get smaller to get a better estimate of how fast the function was increasing at a = 1. Using a limit, we
can actually find the instantaneous rate of change of a function.
Definition. Let a be in the domain of f ( x ). The derivative of f ( x ) at x = a is:
f ( a + h) − f ( a)
f 0 ( a) = lim ,
h →0 h
if the limit exists.
Note: Various resources may signify the derivative of a function f ( x ) in a variety of ways. To name a
df d
few, f 0 ( x ), , f ( x ), and f˙( x ) all represent the derivative of f ( x ).
dx dx
Example 2. Let f ( x ) = x2 . Compute f 0 (1) using the definition of the derivative.

Notice that the quotient:

f ( x + h) − f ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x ) change in f
= =
h ( x + h) − x change in x
which is exactly the slope of the secant line between the points: ( x, f ( x )) and ( x + h, f ( x + h)) or the
average rate of change between x and x + h. Thus, the derivative of f is a limit of the average rates of
change as x + h gets closer and closer to x. This is what we call instantaneous rate of change and it is
represented by the slope of the tangent line to f at x.
Recall that the point-slope form of a line allows us to write the equation of a line if we know two things:
a point ( x1 , y1 ) which lies on the graph of the line and the slope m of the line:
y − y1 = m ( x − x1 ).
Thus, we can find the equation of the tangent line to a function f ( x ) at the point a using:
y − f ( a) = f 0 ( a)( x − a),
since ( a, f ( a)) lies on the graph of the tangent line and f 0 ( a) tells us the slope of the tangent line.
Example 3. Let f ( x ) = x2 . We computed f 0 (1) = 2 in the previous examples. What is the equation of
the tangent line to f ( x ) at a = 1?
 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 3

3
Example 4. Use the definition of the derivative to compute f 0 (2) if f ( x ) = . What is the equation of
x+1
the tangent line to f ( x ) at a = 2?

√
Example 5. Use the definition of the derivative to compute g0 (4) if g( x ) = x + 5.
4 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Example 6. Use the definition of the derivative to compute f 0 ( x ) if f ( x ) = x2 − 3x + 1. Find the equation
of the tangent line to f ( x ) at a = −1.

Example 7. First, use your intuition to determine what the derivative of the linear function y = mx + b
should be. Then use the definition of the derivative to prove your claim.
 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 5

1
Example 8. Use the definition of the derivative to compute g0 ( x ) if g( x ) = .
x
6 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

T HE M EANING OF THE D ERIVATIVE

Since the derivative gives the slope of the tangent line to a function at a point, we can use it to describe
how quickly a function is changing and whether a function is increasing or decreasing.
Example 9. Consider the quadratic function: f ( x ) = x2 . Its derivative is the function f 0 ( x ) = 2x.
(a) On what interval(s) is f increasing? What can you say about f 0 ( x ) here?

(b) On what interval(s) is f decreasing? What can you say about f 0 ( x ) here?

(c) Notice f 0 (0) = 0. What is special about the point (0, 0) on the graph of x2 ?

(d) True or false: The rate at which the f ( x ) is increasing is greater at x = 1 than at x = 2.

Theorem. Suppose f ( x ) is a differentiable function and I is an (open) interval. Then:

(1) f ( x ) is increasing on I if and only if f 0 ( x ) > 0 on I.
(2) f ( x ) is decreasing on I if and only if f 0 ( x ) < 0 on I.
√
Example 10. Show that f ( x ) = x − 2 is an increasing function (on its domain: [2, ∞)).
 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 7

You intuitively know what the terms local minimum or global maximum mean, but we define them here
for completeness:
Definition. Let x = a be in the domain of a function f ( x ).
• We say f ( x ) has a global minimum at x = a if f ( a) ≤ f ( x ) for all x in the domain of f ( x ). The
value f ( a) is called the global minimum.
• We say f ( x ) has a global maximum at x = a if f ( a) ≥ f ( x ) for all x in the domain of f ( x ). The
value f ( a) is called the global maximum.
• We say f ( x ) has a local minimum at x = a if there is an open interval I containing a so that
f ( a) ≤ f ( x ) for all x in I.
• We say f ( x ) has a local maximum at x = a if there is an open interval I containing a so that
f ( a) ≥ f ( x ) for all x in I.
Example 11. Draw an example of a function that has a global minimum at x = −2 and a local minimum
at x = 3.

Example 12. Draw an example of a function that has a local maximum at x = 1 but no global maximum.

Example 13. True or false: every global minimum is also a local minimum.
8 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Theorem (Fermat). Suppose f is differentiable at x = c and f has a local extrema (minimum or maximum) at
x = c. Then f 0 (c) = 0.

Example 14. The graph of a function g( x ) is given below. Use it to answer the questions that follow.

(a) Which is larger: g0 ( A) or g0 (C )?

(b) Which is larger: g0 ( E) or g0 ( F )?

(c) Identify any points x at which g0 ( x ) = 0.

(d) Order from least to greatest: g0 ( A), g0 ( B), g0 (C ).

(e) Which is larger, g0 (C ) or g(C )?

(f) List the interval(s) on which g0 ( x ) > 0.

(g) List the interval(s) on which g0 ( x ) < 0.

 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 9

The Units of the Derivative. Since the derivative is the instantaneous rate of change of a function, if we
know the units of x and f ( x ), it can help us interpret the meaning of the derivative in applications. In
short:
[ units of f ( x ) ] [ output units ]
[ units of f 0 ( x ) ] = =
[ units of x ] [ input units ]

Example 15 (Physics). Suppose s(t) = t2 + 2t is the position of a particle traveling in a straight line
where t is in seconds and s(t) is in meters.
(a) Briefly (in one-sentence) describe the real-world meaning of the statement s(5) = 35 and use
appropriate units to phrase your answer.

(b) What are the units of s0 (t)?

(c) Briefly (in one-sentence) describe the real-world meaning of the statement s0 (5) = 12 and use
appropriate units to phrase your answer.

Example 16. Suppose a T (t) gives the temperature (in degrees Farenheit) t hours after sunrise on a
typical summer day in Reno, NV. What are the units of T 0 (t)? Do you expect T 0 (3) to be positive or
negative? Why?
10 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Definition. The marginal cost is how much it costs to produce one additional good and is given by C 0 (q)
if C (q) represents the cost function.
Definition. The marginal revenue is how much additional revenue is received from selling one more unit
of a good or service and is given by R0 (q) if R(q) represents the revenue function.
Example 17. An airline needs to decide (purely on financial grounds) whether or not to offer an ad-
ditional flight. Originally, they planned to offer only 100 flights. Suppose R0 (100) = 10, 500 and
C 0 (q) = 2, 800. Should they offer the 101st flight? Explain.

Example 18 (Marginal Cost). Suppose a manufacturer’s cost function is given by C (q) = 0.1q2 + 10q +
500. The manufacturer’s marginal cost function is then given by C 0 (q) = 0.2q + 10.
(a) Briefly (in one-sentence) describe the real-world meaning of the statement C (10) = 610 and use
appropriate units to phrase your answer.

(b) Briefly (in one-sentence) describe the real-world meaning of the statement C 0 (10) = 12 and use
appropriate units to phrase your answer.

(c) Estimate the manufacturer’s total cost to produce 11 units.

 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 11

Example 19 (Marginal Revenue). Let R(q) denote a company’s revenue function (in dollars) and suppose
R(50) = 3, 000 and R0 (50) = 7.
(a) Briefly (in one-sentence) describe the real-world meaning of the statement R(50) = 3000 and use
appropriate units to phrase your answer.

(b) Briefly (in one-sentence) describe the real-world meaning of the statement R0 (50) = 7 and use
appropriate units to phrase your answer.

(c) Estimate the company’s total revenue generated if they sell 51 items.
12 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

T HE S ECOND D ERIVATIVE
We now know that the first derivative of a function f tells us where the function is increasing or
decreasing. What about the second derivative, f 00 ?
We say that a function is concave up if the graph of the function “bends upward.” We say that a function
is concave down if the graph of the function “bends downward.”
Example 20. Consider the functions f ( x ) = e x and g( x ) = ln x. The exponential function e x is concave
up on its domain and the logarithmic function ln( x ) is concave down on its domain.
(a) Sketch the graphs of these functions on separate xy-planes.

(b) Where is f 0 ( x ) > 0? Where is g0 ( x ) > 0?

(c) Where is f 00 ( x ) > 0? Where is g00 ( x ) < 0?

If f is (twice) differentiable and has a local minimum at x = c, then f 00 (c) > 0. Similarly, if f has a
local maximum at c, then f 00 (c) < 0.
Example 21. Sketch the graphs of f ( x ) = x2 and g( x ) = − x2 on separate xy-planes. In terms of concav-
ity, what can you say about the vertices of each of these functions?

Definition. A point x in the domain of a function f ( x ) at which f changes concavity is called an inflection
point.
Example 22. Does f ( x ) = x3 have any inflection points? If so, where?
 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 13

Example 23. The graph of a function g( x ) is given below. Use it to answer the questions that follow.

(a) Which is larger: g00 ( B) or g00 ( D )?

(b) Which is larger: g00 ( A) or g00 ( E)?

(c) Order from least to greatest: g( B), g0 ( B), and g00 ( B).

(d) Identify any inflection points of g( x ).

(e) List the interval(s) on which g is concave up.

(f) List the interval(s) on which g is concave down.

14 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

S UMMARY
Here, we collect some facts that we have discussed related to the derivative of a function:
df d dy
• Notation: f 0 ( x ) = = f (x) = = y0 are all used to denote the derivative of the function
dx dx dx
y = f ( x ).
• f 0 ( a) is the instantaneous rate of change of f ( x ) at x = a.
• f 0 ( a) represents the slope of the tangent line to f ( x ) at x = a.

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
• Definition: f 0 ( a) = lim .
h →0 h

• The equation of the tangent line to a differentiable function f ( x ) at x = a is: y − f ( a) = f 0 ( a)( x −

a ).

[ units of f ( x ) ] [ output units ]

• [ units of f 0 ( x ) ] = =
[ units of x ] [ input units ]

• f 0 ( x ) > 0 on an interval I ⇐⇒ f ( x ) is increasing on I.

• f 0 ( x ) < 0 on an interval I ⇐⇒ f ( x ) is decreasing on I.
• If f ( x ) is differentiable and has a local minimum or local maximum at x = a then f 0 ( a) = 0.
• f 00 ( x ) > 0 on an interval I ⇐⇒ f ( x ) is concave up on I.
• f 00 ( x ) < 0 on an interval I ⇐⇒ f ( x ) is concave down on I.

One last remark about differentiable functions: not every function is differentiable. We know that
limits do not always exist, so if the limit of the difference quotient appearing in our definition fails to
exist, it means the slopes of the secant lines do not approach a certain value. This is often identified as a
discontinuity, cusp, or corner in the graph of the function. For example, the absolute value function:
(
x, x≥0
f (x) = |x| =
− x, x < 0
is not differentiable at x = 0.
Most of the functions you are familiar with (polynomials, exponential functions, logarithmic func-
tions, rational functions) are differentiable on their domains.
 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 15

D IFFERENTIATION R ULES
Now that we have defined the derivative of a function and understand what it measures, we need
some rules and procedures to compute derivatives more efficiently. Below we list some basic differenti-
ation rules that can be used as formulas or shortcuts for computing derivatives.
Some basic rules:
• derivative of a constant: Let c ∈ R. and f ( x ) = c. Then f 0 ( x ) = 0.
• power rule: Let n ∈ R. Then f ( x ) = x n =⇒ f 0 ( x ) = nx n−1 .
• constant multiple rule: Let c ∈ R and f ( x ) be a differentiable function. If g( x ) = c · f ( x ), then
g0 ( x ) = c f˙0 ( x ).

Here are differentiation rules corresponding to operations between functions. Let f ( x ) and g( x ) be
differentiable, then:
• The sum rule: ( f ( x ) + g( x ))0 = f 0 ( x ) + g0 ( x ).
• The difference rule: ( f ( x ) − g( x ))0 = f 0 ( x ) − g0 ( x ).
• The product rule: ( f ( x ) · g( x ))0 = f 0 ( x ) g( x ) + f ( x ) g0 ( x ).
f (x) 0 g( x ) f 0 ( x ) − f ( x ) g0 ( x )
 
• The quotient rule: = .
g( x ) g ( x )2
• The chain rule: ( f ◦ g)0 ( x ) = f 0 ( g( x )) · g0 ( x ).

Derivatives of particular functions:

1
• (ln( x ))0 = .
x
• (e x )0 = e x .
16 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Example 24. Compute...

(a) f 0 ( x ) if f ( x ) = x5 .

(b) g0 ( x ) if g( x ) = 6x2 .

(c) h0 ( x ) if g( x ) = x3 + e x .

dp
(d) if p(q) = q3 − 5q2 + 6q + 2.
dq

√ 1
(e) q0 (9) if q(t) = 6 t + 40t2 + 100t − .
t

Example 25. Suppose f ( x ) = 10x4 − 5x3 + 20x2 − 3x + 7. Find f 0 ( x ), f 00 ( x ), and f 000 ( x ).

 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 17

Example 26. Use the limit definition of the derivative to prove:

(a) that f 0 ( x ) = 0 if f ( x ) is a constant function.

(b) the sum rule.

Example 27. Compute...

80 √
(a) y0 (2) if y(t) = t2 − + 6 t.
t2

(b) g0 ( x ) if g( x ) = x3 − 4 ln( x ) + 7.

(c) h0 (t) if h(t) = 2e x − 4x4 + 5x − 1.

18 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Example 28. Evaluate the indicated derivative.

(a) z0 (t) if z(t) = (2t + 5)(t − 3).

(b) y0 ( x ) if y( x ) = ( x2 + 3x + 8)(2e x − 1).

Example 29. f 0 ( x ) if f ( x ) = x2 ln x.
 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 19

Example 30. Compute the indicated derivative.

2x + 4
(a) u0 ( x ) if u( x ) = .
3x + 8

3et + 5t2 + 2t − 1
(b) w0 (t) if w(t) = .
t2 + 5

5x
(c) P0 ( x ) if P( x ) = (3x5 + 7 ln( x ))( x2 + 1) +
e x + 100

17x
y0 (t) if y(t) =
x2 + 5e x
20 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Example 31. Compute √ the indicated derivative:

0
(a) f ( x ) if f ( x ) = x2 + 3x + 7.

(b) g0 (t) if g(t) = 2(t2 + 5t − et )5 .

(c) h0 (q) if h(q) = ln(q4 + 5q3 − q + 2) + q2 .

(d) p0 (0) if p( x ) = x2 + 3x − (9e x + x3 + 2)2 .

(e) y0 (2) if y( x ) = f ( x ) + x2 + 1 and f (2) = 4 and f 0 (2) = −1.

p

2 +8x −12
(f) q0 ( x ) if q( x ) = e5x .