MM3&4 – Calculus Summary Notes

Contents

Part 1: Techniques and Applications of Differentiation .................................................................................. 2

Introduction to derivatives and differentiation rules .................................................................................... 2
Derivatives and graphs ................................................................................................................................... 3
The chain rule ................................................................................................................................................. 4
The product and quotient rules ..................................................................................................................... 6
Limits, continuity and differentiability ........................................................................................................... 7
Tangents and normals .................................................................................................................................. 10
Rates of change ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Stationary points .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Absolute maximum and minimum ............................................................................................................... 12
Maximum and minimum problems.............................................................................................................. 13
Families of functions .................................................................................................................................... 16
Newton’s method for finding solutions to equations .................................................................................. 17

Part 2: Techniques and Applications of Integration ...................................................................................... 18

Introduction to integrals and integration rules ........................................................................................... 18
Definite integrals and area under a curve.................................................................................................... 19
Area between two curves ............................................................................................................................ 21
Applications of integration: average values and rates of change ................................................................ 23

1
Part 1: Techniques and Applications of Differentiation
Introduction to derivatives and differentiation rules
The derivative of a function expressed in terms of 𝑥 is its rate of change with respect to 𝑥. In other words,
where we have the graph of the function and a tangent line that may touch that graph at any point, the
derivative gives us the rule for the gradient of that tangent line.

There are a range of ways to denote the derivative.

𝑑𝑦
• For a relation expressed in terms of 𝑦 and 𝑥, the derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 is denoted by .
𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
• For a function 𝑓(𝑥), the derivative is denoted by 𝑓′(𝑥), where 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim .
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑑 𝑑
• The derivative of an expression in 𝑥 is denoted by 𝑑𝑥 (expression). So (𝑥 2 ) = 2𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

There are rules for differentiating a variety of different functions. However, without knowing these rules it
is still possible to differentiate a function – using what is known as “differentiation by first principles”. This is
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
where we set up the derivative function as 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim , and reduce the fraction to a single
ℎ→0 ℎ
line, which we can then evaluate with the substitution ℎ = 0.

2
Below is a summary of differentiation rules.

Function Rule for differentiation

Rational Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅\{0} and 𝑥 > 0. For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛−1 .
Examples:
• For 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 9𝑥 2 − 12𝑥
• For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 −3 + 𝑥 −1 + 2, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 −4 − 𝑥 −2
1 2 6 5 6 5
1 2 2 6
• For 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 −5 + 3𝑥 7 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2 (− 5 𝑥 −5 ) + 3 (7 𝑥 −7 ) = − 5 𝑥 −5 + 7 𝑥 −7
Exponential Let 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅. For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑥 .
• For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −2𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −2𝑒 −2𝑥 .
1
Logarithmic Let 𝑘 > 0 and 𝑥 > 0. For 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(𝑘𝑥), 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 .
𝑎
For 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 .
5
Example: For 𝑓(𝑥) = ln⁡(5𝑥 + 3), 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5𝑥+3
Circular For 𝑓(𝑥) = sin⁡(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎), 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑘⁡cos⁡(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎)
For 𝑓(𝑥) = cos⁡(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎), 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −𝑘⁡sin⁡(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎)
For 𝑓(𝑥) = tan(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎), 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑘 sec 2 (𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎)

Examples:
• For 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(2𝑥), 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2⁡cos⁡(2𝑥)
• For 𝑓(𝑥) = tan(3𝑥) , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3 sec 2(3𝑥)

Derivatives and graphs

Topic Explanation
The gradient The gradient of the tangent line through a certain point on the graph of a function is
of a tangent found by substituting the x-value into the derivative function.
line at a point

Signs of the The signs of the derivative over different intervals reveal information about the
derivative behaviour of the function over those intervals.
• For 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0, the function is strictly increasing
• For 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0, the function is strictly decreasing
• For 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0, the function is stationary (i.e. neither increasing nor decreasing).
For the graph on the following page:
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 for 𝑥 ∈ (−1, 5)
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 for 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (5, ∞)
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 for 𝑥 ∈ {−1, 5}
3
 Graph of the The graph of the derivative function is a representation of the different intervals over
derivative which the original function is strictly increasing, strictly decreasing, and stationary,
function where:
• The x-intercepts of the derivative graph are the x-values of the stationary points
of the original graph
• The parts of the derivative graph above the y-axis corresponds to the parts of
the original graph that are strictly increasing
• The parts of the derivative graph below the y-axis corresponds to the parts of
the original graph that are strictly decreasing.

In the example below, we have a cubic graph and its corresponding derivative graph.

The chain rule

The chain rule is a differentiation technique that is rooted in the concept of composite functions. It involves
separating a function into two simpler functions, and “chaining” the two simpler functions together. That
way we do not need to expand things, and can instead find the derivative through a much faster process.

The chain rule can be defined in the following two ways:

• Let the function be expressed in terms of 𝑦 and 𝑥. Define a part of the function as 𝑢. This is usually
the expression inside a pair of brackets (e.g. the 2𝑥 2 + 1 in 𝑦 = (2𝑥 2 + 1)3 ). Then re-write the
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
whole function in terms of 𝑢. The derivative is given by = 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥
• Let the function be 𝑓(𝑥). Define a part of the function as ℎ(𝑥). This is usually the expression inside
a pair of brackets. Find 𝑔(𝑥) in terms of 𝑥. Then re-write the whole function as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(ℎ(𝑥)).
The derivative is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔′ (ℎ(𝑥))ℎ′(𝑥).

4
5
The product and quotient rules
The product and quotient rules are differentiation techniques useful for functions that are expressed as the
product or quotient of two distinct elements.

• The product rule states that for 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥), 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔′ (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) ∙ 𝑓′(𝑥).
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)∙𝑓′ (𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)∙𝑔′ (𝑥)
• The quotient rule states that for 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) , 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = .
[𝑔(𝑥)]2

6
Limits, continuity and differentiability
A limit is the value a function approaches as the input variable approaches a particular value. It is denoted
by lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑝, which means that “as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑥) approaches 𝑝.” Note that lim 𝑓(𝑥) can still
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
exist even if 𝑓(𝑎) does not.

To evaluate a limit we simply substitute the value of 𝑎 into the function. So lim 3𝑥 2 = 3(2)2 = 12.
𝑥→2

When analysing a function we may consider “left limits” and “right limits”.

• The “left limit” is the value that 𝑓(𝑥) approaches as 𝑥 approaches a particular value from the left
side. It is denoted by lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑝.
𝑥→𝑎
• The “right limit” is the value that 𝑓(𝑥) approaches as 𝑥 approaches a particular value from the right
side. It is denoted by lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑝.
𝑥→𝑎

A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous at the point 𝑥 = 𝑎 if all of the following conditions are met:

1. 𝑓(𝑎) exists. This ensures that the graph does not have an asymptote or a removable discontinuity at
𝑥 = 𝑎. (A removable discontinuity is where the graph is not continuous but a limit still exists there.
𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2
For instance, the graph of 𝑦 = has a removable discontinuity at 𝑥 = 1.)
𝑥−1
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥). This ensures that the graph is not “split” at the point. For instance, the
𝑥→𝑎− 𝑥→𝑎
graph on the following page is not continuous at 𝑥 = 0, as there is a split there.

7
 3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎). This ensures that at 𝑥 = 𝑎 there is only one y-value it corresponds to. That means
𝑥→𝑎
the graph below is not continuous at 𝑥 = −1, as there are two different points there.

A more informal definition for continuity is that a function is only continuous at a point if we can draw its
graph through that point without lifting our pen.

A function that is not continuous is referred to as discontinuous. A function is “continuous everywhere” if it

is continuous over 𝑅.

8
A function 𝑓 is said to be differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if the derivative function exists at 𝑥 = 𝑎. In order for this
to be the case, there must be exactly one tangent line that passes through the point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)).

Differentiability is a stronger condition than continuity. For 𝑓(𝑎) to be differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎:

1. 𝑓(𝑥) must be continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎, and

2. 𝑓 ′ (𝑎− ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎+ ). This means that the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the left is equal to
the derivative as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the right.

There are functions which are continuous at a point but are not differentiable at that point. For instance,
the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥| is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 but is not differentiable there, as we have 𝑓 ′ (0− ) = −1 and
𝑓 ′ (0+ ) = 1. From the graph below we can see that there are an infinite number of tangent lines we can
draw which pass through the point (0, 0).

9
Tangents and normals
Consider a function 𝑓. Suppose (𝑎, 𝑏) is a point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). If 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎, then:

• The tangent line at (𝑎, 𝑏) is defined as 𝑦 − 𝑏 = 𝑓′(𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎)

1
• The normal line at (𝑎, 𝑏) is defined as 𝑦 − 𝑏 = − 𝑓′ (𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑎).

So a normal line is the line that passes through a point and is perpendicular to the tangent at that point.

Rates of change
For a function with rule 𝑓(𝑥):
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
• The average rate of change over 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] is given by .
𝑏−𝑎
• The instantaneous rate of change of 𝑓 with respect to 𝑥 when 𝑥 = 𝑎 is given by 𝑓′(𝑎).

10
Stationary points
A stationary point is a point on a curve where its gradient is 0 (i.e. it exists when the derivative is 0).

There are three types of stationary points: local maximums, local minimums, stationary points of inflection.

• Local maximums – these are points where the gradient to their left is positive, and the gradient to
their right is negative.
• Local minimums – these are points where the gradient to their left is negative, and the gradient to
their right is positive.
• Stationary points of inflection – these are points where the gradients to their left and right are both
positive or both negative.

In the graph below, point A is a local maximum, point B is a local minimum, and point C is a stationary point
of inflection.

To determine the nature of a stationary point, we can perform the “first derivative test”, which basically
means to find out whether the gradients to the left and right of the point are positive or negative.

11
There is another way to determine the nature of a stationary point, referred to as the “second derivative
test”. The second derivative is the derivative of the first derivative, and is denoted by 𝑓′′(𝑥). When it comes
to stationary points, it tells us that:

• If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0, then the point is a local minimum.

• If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0, then the point is a local minimum.
• If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0, then the point is a stationary point of inflection.

The caveat to this method is that the third condition does not hold in a very small number of cases. For
instance, the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 has a local minimum at (0, 0). Its derivative is 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 , and its
second derivative is 𝑓 ′ ′(𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 , both of these functions being equal to 0 at (0, 0).⁡If we go by the
“second derivative” test, then we should expect to find a stationary point of inflection there. But the point
is actually a local minimum.

Absolute maximum and minimum

There are two types of maximum and minimum: local and absolute. The absolute minimum is the smallest
y-value of within the function’s domain. The absolute maximum is the largest y-value within the domain.

12
Maximum and minimum problems
Many practical problems require that some quantity be minimised or maximised. The general method to
solve these problems is to involve differential calculus.

13
14
15
Families of functions

16
Newton’s method for finding solutions to equations
Newton’s method is an iterative technique for finding approximated solutions to an equation. Its process is
set out as follows:

1. Choose a value of 𝑥 to suppose as a solution to the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.

𝑓(𝑎)
2. Set up the equation 𝑔(𝑎), where 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑎 − 𝑓′ (𝑎) .
3. Define the value chosen in step 1 as 𝑎.
4. Evaluate 𝑔(𝑎).
5. Replace 𝑎 with the value of 𝑔(𝑎) obtained in step 4.
6. Repeat steps 4-5 continuously until 𝑎 has clearly reached a stabilisation at a particular value. This is
the final approximation for the solution to the equation.

17
Part 2: Techniques and Applications of Integration
Introduction to integrals and integration rules
The integral of a derivative function is the original function from which that derivative function is obtained.
In other words, finding an integral means to “undo” the derivative, and the result we obtain through this
process is referred to as the antiderivative. So for 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥, the antiderivative is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐, where 𝑐
is some real number.

The process of finding the integral of a derivative function is called antidifferentiation or integration. When
carrying out antidifferentiation we use the notation ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐, where 𝑐 is some real number.

The reason for adding a 𝑐 to the end of an antiderivative is that we do not know the exact definition of the
antiderivative in terms of its constant value. This is because functions that only differ by their constant
values all have the same derivative. So both 𝑥 2 − 1 and 𝑥 2 + 7 become 2𝑥 through differentiation. But we
do not know which one of those two 2𝑥 becomes through antidifferentiation. Hence, we add the variable
𝑐, to indicate that there is a certain constant within the function which we do not know the exact value of.

The only instance where we are able to determine the constant value is when we are given a point that lies
on the graph of the antiderivative. So if we are told that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 and 𝑓(0) = 0, then by
𝑥4 4𝑥 3 𝑥4 4𝑥 3
substituting the latter into 𝑓(𝑥) = + + 𝑐 we find that 𝑐 = 0. Therefore 𝑓(𝑥) = + .
4 3 4 3

Below is a summary of integration rules for a variety of functions.

Function Rule for integration

Rational, with one 𝑥 𝑟+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑟 ⁡𝑑𝑥 = 𝑟+1
+ 𝑐, where 𝑟 ≠ −1
variable raised to a 𝑥4 4𝑥 3
power Example: ∫ 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 ⁡⁡𝑑𝑥 = + +𝑐
4 3
1
Rational, with the sum ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑟 ⁡𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑟+1) + (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑟+1 + 𝑐, where 𝑟 ≠ −1
of one variable and a 1 1
For 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ≠ 0, ∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 ⁡𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ln|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝑐
number raised to a
power
Examples:
1
• ∫(3𝑥 + 1)5 ⁡𝑑𝑥 = 18 (3𝑥 + 1)6 + 𝑐
2 2
• ∫ 2−3𝑥 ⁡𝑑𝑥 = − 3 ln|2 − 3𝑥| + 𝑐
1
Exponential ∫ 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 ⁡𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑘 ≠ 0
1
Example: ∫ 𝑒 4𝑥 ⁡𝑑𝑥 = 4 𝑒 4𝑥 + 𝑐
1
Circular ∫ sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎)⁡𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑐.
1
∫ cos(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑐.
𝜋 1 𝜋
Example:⁡∫ ⁡sin (3𝑥 + 4 ) ⁡𝑑𝑥 = − 3 cos (3𝑥 + 4 ) + 𝑐

18
Definite integrals and area under a curve
Integrals can be categorised as definite or indefinite.
𝑑𝑦
An indefinite integral is one defined with an unknown constant (i.e. with a “+𝑐” at the end). So for 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥
an indefinite integral would be 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐.

A definite integral is a real number value obtained between two particular endpoints of 𝑥. It is the signed
area enclosed by the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏. The signed area is defined as the area
above the x-axis minus the area below the x-axis. So the signed area of the graph below is 𝐴1 − 𝐴2 .

𝑏
If 𝑓′ is a continuous function over the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then ∫𝑎 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎), where 𝑓
is any antiderivative of 𝑓′. This is known as the fundamental theorem of calculus.

19
The definite integral can be used to find the area under a curve.

• If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then the area, 𝐴, of the region contained between the curve, the x-axis
𝑏
and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given by 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥.

• If 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then the area, 𝐴, of the region contained between the curve, the x-axis
𝑏 𝑎
and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given by 𝐴 = − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥.

• If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for 𝑥 ∈ (𝑐, 𝑏] and 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0 for 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑐), then the total area, 𝐴, of the shaded region
𝑏 𝑐
(see graph below) is given by 𝐴 = ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥.

20
Area between two curves
Consider the two functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑔(𝑥). The area of the region bounded by their
𝑏
respective curves and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given by ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥.

If there are sections where 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑔(𝑥) and sections where 𝑔(𝑥) > 𝑓(𝑥), then the area between the two
curves needs to be calculated in parts. So for the two curves below, the shaded area between them is given
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑏
by ∫𝑎 1 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 2 𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 3 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥.
1 2 3

21
22
Applications of integration: average values and rates of change
1 𝑏
The average value of a function 𝑓 for an interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is given by 𝑏−𝑎 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)⁡𝑑𝑥. In graphical terms, the
average value is the height of a rectangle that has the same area as the area under the graph over [𝑎, 𝑏].

Using the rate of change of a quantity, we can obtain information about how that quantity varies.

23
24