Relay

Article Talk

This article is about the electrical component. For other uses,

see Relay (disambiguation).

A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a

set of input terminals for a single or multiple control
signals, and a set of operating contact terminals. The
switch may have any number of contacts in multiple
contact forms, such as make contacts, break contacts,
or combinations thereof.

A relay

Electromechanical relay principle

Electromechanical relay schematic

showing a control coil, four pairs of
normally open and one pair of normally
closed contacts

An automotive-style miniature
relay with the dust cover taken off

Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit

by an independent low-power signal, or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal. Relays were
first used in long-distance telegraph circuits as signal
repeaters: they refresh the signal coming in from one
circuit by transmitting it on another circuit. Relays were
used extensively in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations.

The traditional electromechanical form of a relay uses an

electromagnet to close or open the contacts, but relays
using other operating principles have also been
invented, such as in solid-state relays which use
semiconductor properties for control without relying on
moving parts. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils
are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or
faults; in modern electric power systems these functions
are performed by digital instruments still called
protective relays or safety relays.

Latching relays require only a single pulse of control

power to operate the switch persistently. Another pulse
applied to a second set of control terminals, or a pulse
with opposite polarity, resets the switch, while repeated
pulses of the same kind have no effects. Magnetic
latching relays are useful in applications when
interrupted power should not affect the circuits that the
relay is controlling.

History

In 1809 an electrolytic relay was designed as an alarm

for an electrochemical telegraph by Samuel Thomas von
Sömmerring.[1]

Electrical relays got their start mainly in application to

telegraphs. American scientist Joseph Henry is often
cited to have invented a relay in 1835 in order to improve
his version of the electrical telegraph, developed earlier
in 1831.[2][3][4] [5] However, Henry never published any
of these experiments and dating for his relay
experiments is based solely on the words of Henry
himself and his students, often decades later.[6][7]

In March 1837 Edward Davy deposited a letter with the

British Secretary for the Society of Arts containing his
ideas for an electromagnetic relay, which, even if it was
not the first, was considered more practical than
previous designs, being a ‘make-and-break’ type rather
than being based on the use of mercury. He did this two
months before Charles Wheatstone and William Cooke
filed their first patent for their telegraph system and
would file a patent for the same idea a year later.[8][9]

However, an official patent was not issued until 1840 to

Samuel Morse for his telegraph, which is now called a
relay. The mechanism described acted as a digital
amplifier, repeating the telegraph signal, and thus
allowing signals to be propagated as far as desired.[10]

The word relay appears in the context of

electromagnetic operations from 1860 onwards.[11]

Basic design and operation

Simple electromechanical relay

Operation without flyback diode,

arcing causes degradation of the
switch contacts

Operation with flyback diode, arcing in

the control circuit is avoided

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire

wrapped around a soft iron core (a solenoid), an iron
yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic
flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of
contacts (there are two contacts in the relay pictured).
The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically
linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. The
armature is held in place by a spring so that when the
relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic
circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts
in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open.
Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts
depending on their function. The relay in the picture also
has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This
ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving
contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the
printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is
soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it

generates a magnetic field that activates the armature,
and the consequent movement of the movable
contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon
construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the
set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-
energized, then the movement opens the contacts and
breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts
were open. When the current to the coil is switched off,
the armature is returned by a force, approximately half
as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position.
Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is
also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most
relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-
voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage
or current application it reduces arcing.

Operation of a 12 A relay

When the coil is energized with direct current, a flyback

diode or snubber resistor is often placed across the coil
to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic
field (back EMF) at deactivation, which would otherwise
generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor
circuit components. Such diodes were not widely used
before the application of transistors as relay drivers, but
soon became ubiquitous as early germanium transistors
were easily destroyed by this surge. Some automotive
relays include a diode inside the relay case. Resistors,
while more durable than diodes, are less efficient at
eliminating voltage spikes generated by relays[12] and
therefore not as commonly used.

A small cradle relay often used in

electronics. The "cradle" term
refers to the shape of the relay's
armature

If the relay is driving a large, or especially a reactive

load, there may be a similar problem of surge currents
around the relay output contacts. In this case a snubber
circuit (a capacitor and resistor in series) across the
contacts may absorb the surge. Suitably rated
capacitors and the associated resistor are sold as a
single packaged component for this commonplace use.

If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating

current (AC), some method is used to split the flux into
two out-of-phase components which add together,
increasing the minimum pull on the armature during the
AC cycle. Typically this is done with a small copper
"shading ring" crimped around a portion of the core that
creates the delayed, out-of-phase component,[13] which
holds the contacts during the zero crossings of the
control voltage.[14]

Contact materials for relays vary by application.

Materials with low contact resistance may be oxidized by
the air, or may tend to "stick" instead of cleanly parting
when opening. Contact material may be optimized for
low electrical resistance, high strength to withstand
repeated operations, or high capacity to withstand the
heat of an arc. Where very low resistance is required, or
low thermally-induced voltages are desired, gold-plated
contacts may be used, along with palladium and other
non-oxidizing, semi-precious metals. Silver or silver-
plated contacts are used for signal switching. Mercury-
wetted relays make and break circuits using a thin, self-
renewing film of liquid mercury. For higher-power relays
switching many amperes, such as motor circuit
contactors, contacts are made with a mixtures of silver
and cadmium oxide, providing low contact resistance
and high resistance to the heat of arcing. Contacts used
in circuits carrying scores or hundreds of amperes may
include additional structures for heat dissipation and
management of the arc produced when interrupting the
circuit.[15] Some relays have field-replaceable contacts,
such as certain machine tool relays; these may be
replaced when worn out, or changed between normally
open and normally closed state, to allow for changes in
the controlled circuit.[16]

Terminology

Circuit symbols of relays (C denotes

the common terminal in SPDT and
DPDT types.)

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to

switches is also applied to relays; a relay switches one or
more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by
energizing the coil. Normally open (NO) contacts
connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive.
Normally closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit
when the relay is activated; the circuit is connected
when the relay is inactive. All of the contact forms
involve combinations of NO and NC connections.

The National Association of Relay Manufacturers and its

successor, the Relay and Switch Industry Association
define 23 distinct electrical contact forms found in
relays and switches.[17] Of these, the following are
commonly encountered:

SPST-NO (Single-Pole Single-Throw, Normally-Open)

relays have a single Form A or make contact. These have
two terminals which can be connected or disconnected.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals
in total.

SPST-NC (Single-Pole Single-Throw, Normally-Closed)

relays have a single Form B or break contact. As with an
SPST-NO relay, such a relay has four terminals in total.

SPDT (Single-Pole Double-Throw) relays have a single set

of Form C, break before make or transfer contacts. That
is, a common terminal connects to either of two others,
never connecting to both at the same time. Including two
for the coil, such a relay has a total of five terminals.

DPST – Double-Pole Single-Throw relays are equivalent

to a pair of SPST switches or relays actuated by a single
coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has a total of
six terminals. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one
of each; the designations NO and NC should be used to
resolve the ambiguity).

DPDT – Double-Pole Double-Throw relays have two sets

of Form C contacts. These are equivalent to two SPDT
switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay
has eight terminals, including the coil

Form D – make before break[18]

Form E – combination of D and B[18]

The S (single) or D (double) designator for the pole

count may be replaced with a number, indicating
multiple contacts connected to a single actuator. For
example, 4PDT indicates a four-pole double-throw relay
that has 12 switching terminals.

EN 50005 are among applicable standards for relay

terminal numbering; a typical EN 50005-compliant SPDT
relay's terminals would be numbered 11, 12, 14, A1 and
A2 for the C, NC, NO, and coil connections,
respectively.[19]

DIN 72552 defines contact numbers in relays for

automotive use:

85 = relay coil -

86 = relay coil +

87 = to load (normally open)

87a = to load (normally closed)

30 = battery +

Types

It has been suggested that this article be split into a new

article titled List of relay types. (Discuss) (September
2021)

Coaxial relay

Where radio transmitters and receivers share one

antenna, often a coaxial relay is used as a TR (transmit-
receive) relay, which switches the antenna from the
receiver to the transmitter. This protects the receiver
from the high power of the transmitter. Such relays are
often used in transceivers which combine transmitter
and receiver in one unit. The relay contacts are designed
not to reflect any radio frequency power back toward the
source, and to provide very high isolation between
receiver and transmitter terminals. The characteristic
impedance of the relay is matched to the transmission
line impedance of the system, for example, 50 ohms.[20]

Contactor

A contactor is a heavy-duty relay with higher current

ratings,[21] used for switching electric motors and
lighting loads. Continuous current ratings for common
contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred
amps. High-current contacts are made with alloys
containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the
contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still a good
conductor.[22] Contactors with overload protection
devices are often used to start motors.[23]

Force-guided contacts relay

A force-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that

are mechanically linked together, so that when the relay
coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked
contacts move together. If one set of contacts in the
relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the
same relay will be able to move. The function of force-
guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check
the status of the relay. Force-guided contacts are also
known as "positive-guided contacts", "captive
contacts", "locked contacts", "mechanically linked
contacts", or "safety relays".

These safety relays have to follow design rules and

manufacturing rules that are defined in one main
machinery standard EN 50205 : Relays with forcibly
guided (mechanically linked) contacts. These rules for
the safety design are the one defined in type B
standards such as EN 13849-2 as Basic safety principles
and Well-tried safety principles for machinery that
applies to all machines.

Force-guided contacts by themselves can not guarantee

that all contacts are in the same state, however, they do
guarantee, subject to no gross mechanical fault, that no
contacts are in opposite states. Otherwise, a relay with
several normally open (NO) contacts may stick when
energized, with some contacts closed and others still
slightly open, due to mechanical tolerances. Similarly, a
relay with several normally closed (NC) contacts may
stick to the unenergized position, so that when
energized, the circuit through one set of contacts is
broken, with a marginal gap, while the other remains
closed. By introducing both NO and NC contacts, or
more commonly, changeover contacts, on the same
relay, it then becomes possible to guarantee that if any
NC contact is closed, all NO contacts are open, and
conversely, if any NO contact is closed, all NC contacts
are open. It is not possible to reliably ensure that any
particular contact is closed, except by potentially
intrusive and safety-degrading sensing of its circuit
conditions, however in safety systems it is usually the
NO state that is most important, and as explained above,
this is reliably verifiable by detecting the closure of a
contact of opposite sense.

Force-guided contact relays are made with different

main contact sets, either NO, NC or changeover, and one
or more auxiliary contact sets, often of reduced current
or voltage rating, used for the monitoring system.
Contacts may be all NO, all NC, changeover, or a mixture
of these, for the monitoring contacts, so that the safety
system designer can select the correct configuration for
the particular application. Safety relays are used as part
of an engineered safety system.

Latching relay

Latching relay with permanent magnet

A latching relay, also called impulse, bistable, keep, or

stay relay, or simply latch, maintains either contact
position indefinitely without power applied to the coil.
The advantage is that one coil consumes power only for
an instant while the relay is being switched, and the
relay contacts retain this setting across a power outage.
A latching relay allows remote control of building
lighting without the hum that may be produced from a
continuously (AC) energized coil.

In one mechanism, two opposing coils with an over-

center spring or permanent magnet hold the contacts in
position after the coil is de-energized. A pulse to one
coil turns the relay on, and a pulse to the opposite coil
turns the relay off. This type is widely used where
control is from simple switches or single-ended outputs
of a control system, and such relays are found in
avionics and numerous industrial applications.

Another latching type has a remanent core that retains

the contacts in the operated position by the remanent
magnetism in the core. This type requires a current
pulse of opposite polarity to release the contacts. A
variation uses a permanent magnet that produces part
of the force required to close the contact; the coil
supplies sufficient force to move the contact open or
closed by aiding or opposing the field of the permanent
magnet.[24] A polarity controlled relay needs
changeover switches or an H-bridge drive circuit to
control it. The relay may be less expensive than other
types, but this is partly offset by the increased costs in
the external circuit.

In another type, a ratchet relay has a ratchet mechanism

that holds the contacts closed after the coil is
momentarily energized. A second impulse, in the same
or a separate coil, releases the contacts.[24] This type
may be found in certain cars, for headlamp dipping and
other functions where alternating operation on each
switch actuation is needed.

A stepping relay is a specialized kind of multi-way

latching relay designed for early automatic telephone
exchanges.

An earth-leakage circuit breaker includes a specialized

latching relay. [clarification needed]

Very early computers often stored bits in a magnetically

latching relay, such as ferreed or the later remreed in the
1ESS switch.

Some early computers used ordinary relays as a kind of

latch—they store bits in ordinary wire-spring relays or
reed relays by feeding an output wire back as an input,
resulting in a feedback loop or sequential circuit. Such
an electrically latching relay requires continuous power
to maintain state, unlike magnetically latching relays or
mechanically ratcheting relays. While (self-)holding
circuits are often realized with relays they can also be
implemented by other means.

In computer memories, latching relays and other relays

were replaced by delay-line memory, which in turn was
replaced by a series of ever faster and ever smaller
memory technologies.

Machine tool relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial

control of machine tools, transfer machines, and other
sequential control. They are characterized by a large
number of contacts (sometimes extendable in the field)
which are easily converted from normally open to
normally closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a
form factor that allows compactly installing many relays
in a control panel. Although such relays once were the
backbone of automation in such industries as
automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller
(PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from
sequential control applications.

A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical

equipment: for example, a timer circuit with a relay could
switch power at a preset time. For many years relays
were the standard method of controlling industrial
electronic systems. A number of relays could be used
together to carry out complex functions (relay logic).
The principle of relay logic is based on relays which
energize and de-energize associated contacts. Relay
logic is the predecessor of ladder logic, which is
commonly used in programmable logic controllers.

Mercury relay

A mercury relay is a relay that uses mercury as the

switching element. They are used where contact erosion
would be a problem for conventional relay contacts.
Owing to environmental considerations about significant
amount of mercury used and modern alternatives, they
are now comparatively uncommon.

Mercury-wetted relay

A mercury-wetted reed relay

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay that

employs a mercury switch, in which the contacts are
wetted with mercury. Mercury reduces the contact
resistance and mitigates the associated voltage drop.
Surface contamination may result in poor conductivity
for low-current signals. For high-speed applications, the
mercury eliminates contact bounce, and provides
virtually instantaneous circuit closure. Mercury wetted
relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted
according to the manufacturer's specifications. Because
of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these
relays have increasingly fallen into disuse.

The high speed of switching action of the mercury-

wetted relay is a notable advantage. The mercury
globules on each contact coalesce, and the current rise
time through the contacts is generally considered to be
a few picoseconds.[citation needed] However, in a
practical circuit it may be limited by the inductance of
the contacts and wiring. It was quite common, before
restrictions on the use of mercury, to use a mercury-
wetted relay in the laboratory as a convenient means of
generating fast rise time pulses, however although the
rise time may be picoseconds, the exact timing of the
event is, like all other types of relay, subject to
considerable jitter, possibly milliseconds, due to
mechanical variations.

The same coalescence process causes another effect,

which is a nuisance in some applications. The contact
resistance is not stable immediately after contact
closure, and drifts, mostly downwards, for several
seconds after closure, the change perhaps being
0.5 ohm.[citation needed]

Multi-voltage relays

Multi-voltage relays are devices designed to work for

wide voltage ranges such as 24 to 240 VAC and VDC and
wide frequency ranges such as 0 to 300 Hz. They are
indicated for use in installations that do not have stable
supply voltages.

Overload protection relay

Electric motors need overcurrent protection to prevent

damage from over-loading the motor, or to protect
against short circuits in connecting cables or internal
faults in the motor windings.[25] The overload sensing
devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil
heats a bimetallic strip, or where a solder pot melts, to
operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are
in series with the motor's contactor coil, so they turn off
the motor when it overheats.[26]

This thermal protection operates relatively slowly

allowing the motor to draw higher starting currents
before the protection relay will trip. Where the overload
relay is exposed to the same ambient temperature as the
motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor
ambient temperature is provided.[27]

The other common overload protection system uses an

electromagnet coil in series with the motor circuit that
directly operates contacts. This is similar to a control
relay but requires a rather high fault current to operate
the contacts. To prevent short over current spikes from
causing nuisance triggering the armature movement is
damped with a dashpot. The thermal and magnetic
overload detections are typically used together in a
motor protection relay.[citation needed]

Electronic overload protection relays measure motor

current and can estimate motor winding temperature
using a "thermal model" of the motor armature system
that can be set to provide more accurate motor
protection. Some motor protection relays include
temperature detector inputs for direct measurement
from a thermocouple or resistance thermometer sensor
embedded in the winding.[28]

Polarized relay

A polarized relay places the armature between the poles

of a permanent magnet to increase sensitivity. Polarized
relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone
exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic
distortion.

Reed relay

(from top) Single-pole reed switch,

four-pole reed switch and single-pole
reed relay. Scale in centimeters

A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The

switch has a set of contacts inside an evacuated or inert
gas-filled glass tube that protects the contacts against
atmospheric corrosion; the contacts are made of
magnetic material that makes them move under the
influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid or an
external magnet.

Reed relays can switch faster than larger relays and

require very little power from the control circuit.
However, they have relatively low switching current and
voltage ratings. Though rare, the reeds can become
magnetized over time, which makes them stick "on",
even when no current is present; changing the
orientation of the reeds or degaussing the switch with
respect to the solenoid's magnetic field can resolve this
problem.

Sealed contacts with mercury-wetted contacts have

longer operating lives and less contact chatter than any
other kind of relay.[29]

Safety relays

Safety relays are devices which generally implement

protection functions. In the event of a hazard, the task
of such a safety function is to use appropriate measures
to reduce the existing risk to an acceptable level.[30]

Solid-state contactor

A solid-state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay,

including the necessary heat sink, used where frequent
on-off cycles are required, such as with electric heaters,
small electric motors, and lighting loads. There are no
moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce
due to vibration. They are activated by AC control
signals or DC control signals from programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), PCs, transistor-transistor logic (TTL)
sources, or other microprocessor and microcontroller
controls.

Solid-state relay

Solid-state relays have no moving

parts.

25 A and 40 A solid state contactors

A solid-state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic

component that provides a function similar to an
electromechanical relay but does not have any moving
components, increasing long-term reliability. A solid-
state relay uses a thyristor, TRIAC or other solid-state
switching device, activated by the control signal, to
switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An
optocoupler (a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a
photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and
controlled circuits.[31]

Static relay

A static relay consists of electronic circuitry to emulate

all those characteristics which are achieved by moving
parts in an electro-magnetic relay.

Time-delay relay

Timing relays are arranged for an intentional delay in

operating their contacts. A very short (a fraction of a
second) delay would use a copper disk between the
armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in
the disk maintains a magnetic field for a short time,
lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a
minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston
filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly; both air-
filled and oil-filled dashpots are used. The time period
can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate.
For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is
installed. Relays may be arranged for a fixed timing
period, or may be field-adjustable, or remotely set from
a control panel. Modern microprocessor-based timing
relays provide precision timing over a great range.

Some relays are constructed with a kind of "shock

absorber" mechanism attached to the armature, which
prevents immediate, full motion when the coil is either
energized or de-energized. This addition gives the relay
the property of time-delay actuation. Time-delay relays
can be constructed to delay armature motion on coil
energization, de-energization, or both.

Time-delay relay contacts must be specified not only as

either normally open or normally closed, but whether the
delay operates in the direction of closing or in the
direction of opening. The following is a description of
the four basic types of time-delay relay contacts.

First, we have the normally open, timed-closed (NOTC)

contact. This type of contact is normally open when the
coil is unpowered (de-energized). The contact is closed
by the application of power to the relay coil, but only
after the coil has been continuously powered for the
specified amount of time. In other words, the direction
of the contact's motion (either to close or to open) is
identical to a regular NO contact, but there is a delay in
closing direction. Because the delay occurs in the
direction of coil energization, this type of contact is
alternatively known as a normally open, on-delay.

Vacuum relays

A vacuum relay is a sensitive relay having its contacts

mounted in an evacuated glass housing, to permit
handling radio-frequency voltages [clarification needed] as
high as 20,000 volts without flashover between contacts
even though contact spacing is as low as a few
hundredths of an inch when open.

Applications

A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice

cube" packaging

Relays are used wherever it is necessary to control a

high power or high voltage circuit with a low power
circuit, especially when galvanic isolation is desirable.
The first application of relays was in long telegraph
lines, whereas the weak signal received at an
intermediate station could control a contact,
regenerating the signal for further transmission. High-
voltage or high-current devices can be controlled with
small, low voltage wiring and pilots switches. Operators
can be isolated from the high voltage circuit. Low power
devices such as microprocessors can drive relays to
control electrical loads beyond their direct drive
capability. In an automobile, a starter relay allows the
high current of the cranking motor to be controlled with
small wiring and contacts in the ignition key.

Electromechanical switching systems including

Strowger and crossbar telephone exchanges made
extensive use of relays in ancillary control circuits. The
Relay Automatic Telephone Company also manufactured
telephone exchanges based solely on relay switching
techniques designed by Gotthilf Ansgarius Betulander.
The first public relay based telephone exchange in the
UK was installed in Fleetwood on 15 July 1922 and
remained in service until 1959.[32][33]

The use of relays for the logical control of complex

switching systems like telephone exchanges was
studied by Claude Shannon, who formalized the
application of Boolean algebra to relay circuit design in A
Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits.
Relays can perform the basic operations of Boolean
combinatorial logic. For example, the Boolean AND
function is realised by connecting normally open relay
contacts in series, the OR function by connecting
normally open contacts in parallel. Inversion of a logical
input can be done with a normally closed contact. Relays
were used for control of automated systems for machine
tools and production lines. The Ladder programming
language is often used for designing relay logic
networks.

Early electro-mechanical computers such as the ARRA,

Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3 used relays for
logic and working registers. However, electronic devices
proved faster and easier to use.

Relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to

nuclear radiation, so they are widely used in safety-
critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive
waste-handling machinery. Electromechanical
protective relays are used to detect overload and other
faults on electrical lines by opening and closing circuit
breakers.

Protective relays
Main article: Protective relay

For protection of electrical apparatus and transmission

lines, electromechanical relays with accurate operating
characteristics were used to detect overload, short-
circuits, and other faults. While many such relays remain
in use, digital protective relays now provide equivalent
and more complex protective functions.

Railway signaling

Part of a relay interlocking using UK Q-

style miniature plug-in relays

Railway signalling relays are large considering the

mostly small voltages (less than 120 V) and currents
(perhaps 100 mA) that they switch. Contacts are widely
spaced to prevent flashovers and short circuits over a
lifetime that may exceed fifty years.

Since rail signal circuits must be highly reliable, special

techniques are used to detect and prevent failures in the
relay system. To protect against false feeds, double
switching relay contacts are often used on both the
positive and negative side of a circuit, so that two false
feeds are needed to cause a false signal. Not all relay
circuits can be proved so there is reliance on
construction features such as carbon to silver contacts
to resist lightning induced contact welding and to
provide AC immunity.

Opto-isolators are also used in some instances with

railway signalling, especially where only a single contact
is to be switched.

Selection considerations

Several 30-contact relays in

"Connector" circuits in mid-20th
century 1XB switch and 5XB switch
telephone exchanges; cover removed
on one.

Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular

application requires evaluation of many different factors:

Number and type of contacts — normally open, normally

closed, (double-throw)

Contact sequence — "make before break" or "break

before make". For example, the old style telephone
exchanges required make-before-break so that the
connection did not get dropped while dialing the number.

Contact current rating — small relays switch a few

amperes, large contactors are rated for up to 3000
amperes, alternating or direct current

Contact voltage rating — typical control relays rated 300

VAC or 600 VAC, automotive types to 50 VDC, special
high-voltage relays to about 15,000 V

Operating lifetime, useful life — the number of times the

relay can be expected to operate reliably. There is both a
mechanical life and a contact life. The contact life is
affected by the type of load switched. Breaking load
current causes undesired arcing between the contacts,
eventually leading to contacts that weld shut or contacts
that fail due to erosion by the arc.[34]

Coil voltage — machine-tool relays usually 24 VDC, 120

or 250 VAC, relays for switchgear may have 125 V or 250
VDC coils,

Coil current — Minimum current required for reliable

operation and minimum holding current, as well as
effects of power dissipation on coil temperature at
various duty cycles. "Sensitive" relays operate on a few
milliamperes.

Package/enclosure — open, touch-safe, double-voltage

for isolation between circuits, explosion proof, outdoor,
oil and splash resistant, washable for printed circuit
board assembly

Operating environment — minimum and maximum

operating temperature and other environmental
considerations, such as effects of humidity and salt

Assembly — Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the

enclosure sealed to allow PCB post soldering cleaning,
which is removed once assembly is complete.

Mounting — sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount,

through-panel mount, enclosure for mounting on walls or
equipment

Switching time — where high speed is required

"Dry" contacts — when switching very low level signals,

special contact materials may be needed such as gold-
plated contacts

Contact protection — suppress arcing in very inductive

circuits

Coil protection — suppress the surge voltage produced

when switching the coil current

Isolation between coil contacts

Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality

assurance

Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration — some

relays used in aerospace applications are designed to
function in shock loads of 50 g, or more.

Size — smaller relays often resist mechanical vibration

and shock better than larger relays, because of the lower
inertia of the moving parts and the higher natural
frequencies of smaller parts.[29] Larger relays often
handle higher voltage and current than smaller relays.

Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot

lamps, and test buttons.

Regulatory approvals.

Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays

on a printed circuit board.

There are many considerations involved in the correct

selection of a control relay for a particular application,
including factors such as speed of operation, sensitivity,
and hysteresis. Although typical control relays operate
in the 5 ms to 20 ms range, relays with switching speeds
as fast as 100 µs are available. Reed relays which are
actuated by low currents and switch fast are suitable for
controlling small currents.

As with any switch, the contact current (unrelated to the

coil current) must not exceed a given value to avoid
damage. In high-inductance circuits such as motors,
other issues must be addressed. When an inductance is
connected to a power source, an input surge current or
electromotor starting current larger than the steady-
state current exists. When the circuit is broken, the
current cannot change instantaneously, which creates a
potentially damaging arc across the separating
contacts.

Consequently, for relays used to control inductive loads,

we must specify the maximum current that may flow
through the relay contacts when it actuates, the make
rating; the continuous rating; and the break rating. The
make rating may be several times larger than the
continuous rating, which is larger than the break rating.

Safety and reliability

Main article: Arc suppression

Switching while "wet" (under load) causes undesired

arcing between the contacts, eventually leading to
contacts that weld shut or contacts that fail due to a
buildup of surface damage caused by the destructive
arc energy.[34]

Inside the Number One Electronic Switching System

(1ESS) crossbar switch and certain other high-reliability
designs, the reed switches are always switched "dry"
(without load) to avoid that problem, leading to much
longer contact life.[35]

Without adequate contact protection, the occurrence of

electric current arcing causes significant degradation of
the contacts, which suffer significant and visible
damage. Every time the relay contacts open or close
under load, an electrical arc can occur between the
contacts of the relay, either a break arc (when opening),
or a make / bounce arc (when closing). In many
situations, the break arc is more energetic and thus
more destructive, in particular with inductive loads, but
this can be mitigated by bridging the contacts with a
snubber circuit. The inrush current of tungsten filament
incandescent lamps is typically ten times the normal
operating current. Thus, relays intended for tungsten
loads may use special contact composition, or the relay
may have lower contact ratings for tungsten loads than
for purely resistive loads.

An electrical arc across relay contacts can be very hot —

thousands of degrees Fahrenheit — causing the metal on
the contact surfaces to melt, pool, and migrate with the
current. The extremely high temperature of the arc splits
the surrounding gas molecules, creating ozone, carbon
monoxide, and other compounds. Over time, the arc
energy slowly destroys the contact metal, causing some
material to escape into the air as fine particulate matter.
This action causes the material in the contacts to
degrade and coordination, resulting in device failure.
This contact degradation drastically limits the overall life
of a relay to a range of about 10,000 to 100,000
operations, a level far below the mechanical life of the
device, which can be in excess of 20 million
operations.[36]

See also

Analogue switch

Buchholz relay

Dry contact

Flyback diode

Nanoelectromechanical relay

Race condition

Stepping switch

Wire spring relay

References

External links

Media related to Relay at Wikimedia Commons

Last edited 16 days ago by Cnwilliams

R E L AT E D A R T I C L E S

Contactor
Electronic circuit element serving as a switch

Galvanic isolation
Isolating sections of electrical systems

Magnetic starter

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