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Temperature & Thermal Equilibrium Temperature & Thermal Equilibrium
Insulator Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• An ideal insulator is a material that permits no • This law was only recognized after the first, second
interaction at all between two systems, thus and third laws of thermodynamics has been named
preventing thermal equilibrium from being reached. • Suppose we replace C with a thermometer and is in
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics contact with A and B.
• It is an important property • When thermometer reaches a stable value, both A
of thermal equilibrium and B has the same temperature.
• Consider three systems: • Conclusion: Two systems are in thermal equilibrium
A, B and C. if and only if they have the same temperature.

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17. Temperature and Heat 17. Temperature and Heat

Gas Thermometers and the Kelvin Scale Gas Thermometers and the Kelvin Scale
Single reference pt on Kelvin temperature scale Relationship between different scales
• Thus, triple-point temperature Ttriple of water =
273.16 K, corresponding to 0.01°C.
• From Eqn 17.4,
p p
T = Ttriple = (273.16 K ) (17.5) Eqn 17.5
ptriple ptriple

• The relationships among the 3 temperature scales

are shown graphically.

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17. Temperature and Heat 17. Temperature and Heat

Gas Thermometers and the Kelvin Scale Thermal Expansion
Absolute temperature scale • Most materials expand when their temperature
• The Kelvin temperature scale is called an increases.
absolute temperature scale. • Examples of thermal expansion:
• Its zero point (T = 0 K = 273.15°C, temperature at – expanding liquid in a liquid-in-tube
which p = 0 in Eqn 17.5) is called an absolute thermometer,
zero. – bending bimetallic strips,
– loosening a metal jar lid by running hot water
over it.

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Thermal Expansion Thermal Expansion
Linear Expansion Linear Expansion
• A rod of material has a length L0 at some initial • Therefore, ΔL must also be proportional to L0.
temperature T0. • Introduce a proportionality constant a (varies
• When temperature changes by ΔT, length according to type of materials), we get
changes by ΔL DL = a L0 DT (17.6)
• Experiments show that if ΔT is not too large (less
than 100°C or so), ΔL is directly proportional to • If a body has length L0 at temperature T0, then
ΔT. its length L at temperature T = T0 + ΔT is
• If two rods made of same material have same
L = L0 + DL = L0 + a L0DT = L0 (1 + a DT ) (17.7)
temperature change, but one is twice as long,
then change in its length is also twice as great.
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17. Temperature and Heat 17. Temperature and Heat

Thermal Expansion 17.3 Thermal Expansion
Linear Expansion • If a solid object has a hole in it, what happens
• The constant a which describes the thermal to the size of it when the temperature of the
expansion properties of a particular material is object increases?
called the coefficient of linear expansion. • Common misconception is that the material
• Its units are K-1 or (°C)-1. will expand into the hole.
• Thus L could be the thickness of a rod, side length • The fact is the hole expands along with the
of a square sheet, or the diameter of a hole. object.
• Every linear dimension
of an object changes in
the same way when
temperature changes.
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17. Temperature and Heat 17. Temperature and Heat

17.4 Thermal Expansion Thermal Expansion
Linear Expansion Volume Expansion
• Note that the direct proportionality expressed in • The constant b characterizes the volume
Eqn 17.6. expansion properties of a particular material.
• It is approximately correct only for sufficiently small • It is called the coefficient of volume expansion
temperature changes. • Its units are K-1 or (°C)-1.
• As with linear expansion, varies somewhat with
temperature and Eqn 17.8 is an approximate
relation that is
valid only for
small
temperature
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Thermal Expansion Example 17.2 Length change due to temperature change I

Volume Expansion A surveyor uses a steel measuring tape that is

• Increasing temperature usually causes an increase exactly 50.000 m long at a temperature of 20C. What
in volume for both solid and liquid materials. is its length on a hot summer day when the
• Experiments show that if temperature change ΔT is temperature is 35C.
not too great (less than 100°C), the increase in Solution:
volume ΔV is approximately proportional to both Identify and Set Up:
temperature change ΔT and initial volume V0; As this problem concerns linear expansion, we use
Eqn 17.6. L = 50.000 m, T0 = 20°C and T = 35°C, and
DV = b V0DT (17.8) value of is found from Table 17.1. Target variable is
new length L.

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17. Temperature and Heat 17. Temperature and Heat

Example 17.2 (SOLN) Volume change due to temperature change
Execute: A glass flask with volume 200 cm3 is filled to the brim
Temperature change is ∆T = T- T0 = 15C°, so from with mercury at 20°C. How much mercury overflows
Eqn 17.6 the change in length ∆L and the final length when the temperature of the system is raised to
L = L0 + ∆L are 100°C? The coefficient of linear expansion of the
glass is 0.40 ´ 10-5 K-1.
( )
DL = a L0 DT = 1.2 ´ 10-5 K -1 (50 m)(15 K ) Solution:
= 9.0 ´ 10 m = 9.0 mm -3 Identify:
L = L0 + L = 50.000 m + 0.009 m = 50.009 m This problem involves the volume expansion of the
glass and of the mercury. The amount of overflow
depends on the difference between the volume
Thus the length at 35°C is 50.009 m. changes for these two materials.
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17. Temperature and Heat 17. Temperature and Heat

Example 17.4 (SOLN)
Set Up: Set Up:
The amount of overflow is equal to the difference Increase in volume of glass flask
between the values of ∆V for mercury and for glass, DVglass = b glassV0DT
both given by Eqn 17.8. For mercury to overflow, its
coefficient of volume expansion b must be larger
( )( )
= 1.2 ´ 10-5 K -1 200 cm3 (100°C - 20°C)
3
than that for glass. The value for mercury is = 0.19 cm
bmercury = 18 ´10-5 K-1 from Table 17.2. We find the Increase in volume of mercury is
value of b for this type of glass from Eqn 17.9, DVmercury = b mercuryV0DT
b = 3a.
Execute:
( )( )
= 18 ´ 10-5 K -1 200 cm3 (100°C - 20°C)
( )
b glass = 3a glass = 3 0.40 ´ 10-1 K -1 = 1.2 ´ 10-5 K -1 = 2.9 cm 3

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Thermal Expansion
Set Up: Thermal expansion of water
Volume of mercury that overflows • Water in the temperature range of 0°C to 4°C,
DVmercury - DVglass = 2.9 cm3 - 0.19 cm3 = 2.7 cm3 decreases in volume with increasing temperature.
• In the above range, its coefficient of volume
expansion is negative.
• Above 4°C, water expands when heated, hence
water has its greatest density at 4°C.
• Water also expands when it freezes.
• This anomalous behavior of water has an
important effect on plant and water life in lakes,
particularly during winter.
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17. Temperature and Heat 17. Temperature and Heat

PHYSICS OLYMPIAD PHYSICS OLYMPIAD

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17. Temperature and Heat 17. Temperature and Heat

Thermal Expansion Thermal Expansion
Thermal stress Thermal stress
• If we clamp the ends of a rod rigidly to prevent • To calculate thermal stress in a rod, compute the
expansion or contraction, then change the amount the rod would expand (contract) if not held.
temperature, tensile or compressive stresses
called thermal stresses develop. • Then find the stress needed to compress it back to
• Resulting stresses may become so large that the its original length.
rod is deformed permanently. • Suppose a rod with length L0 and x-sectional area
• Engineers must account for thermal stress when A is held at constant length while temperature is
designing structures. reduced (-ΔT), causing a tensile stress.
• Thus, we can see gaps between sections for
concrete structures such as bridges and highways,
filled with flexible material.
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Thermal Expansion Thermal Expansion
Thermal stress Thermal stress
• Fractional change in length if rod were free to • If length is to be constant, total fractional change in
contract, æ DL ö length must be zero. From Eqns 17.10 and 17.11,
çç ÷÷ = aDT (17.10)
è L0 øthermal æ DL ö æ DL ö F
çç ÷÷ + çç ÷÷ = aDT + =0
• Both ΔL and ΔT are negative. Tension must è L0 øthermal è L0 øtension AY
increase by an amount F that is just enough to • Solving for tensile stress F/A required to keep rod’s
produce an equal and opposite fractional change in length constant, we find
length (ΔL/L0)tension. From Young’s modulus,
F
F/A æ DL ö F = -YaDT (17.12)
Y= so çç ÷÷ = (17.11) A
DL / L0 è L0 øtension AY
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17. Temperature and Heat 17. Temperature and Heat

Thermal stress Example 17.5 (SOLN)
A 10-cm long aluminum cylinder with x-section area Identify and Set Up:
of 20 cm2, is used as a spacer between two steel Use Eqn 17.2 to relate the stress (target variable) to
walls. At 17.2°C it just slips in between the walls. temperature change. Relevant values of Young’s
When it warms to 22.3°C, calculate the stress in the modulus Y and coefficient of linear expansion a are
cylinder and total force it exerts on each wall, those for aluminum, the material of which the cylinder
assuming that the walls are perfectly rigid and a is made from Tables 11.1 and 17.1.
constant distance apart. Execute:
Y = 7.0 ´1010 Pa and a = 2.4 ´ 10-5 K-1. Temperature
change is ∆T = 22.3°C - 17.2°C = 5.1 C° = 5.1 K.
Stress is F/A.

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17. Temperature and Heat 17. Temperature and Heat

Example 17.5 (SOLN) Example 17.5 (SOLN)
Execute: Execute:
F
A
(
= -Ya DT = - 0.70 ´ 1011 Pa 2.4 ´ 10-5 K -1 (5.1 K ))( ) The total force F is nearly two tons and negative sign
indicates compression.
= -1.7 ´ 104 N Evaluate:
Negative sign indicates compressive rather than Stress on cylinder and the force it exerts on each wall
tensile stress is needed to keep the cylinder’s length are immense. This points out the importance of
constant. This stress is independent of the length and accommodating for such thermal stresses in
x-sectional area of the cylinder. engineering.
F
(
F = Aæç ö÷ = 20 ´ 10- 4 m2 - 8.6 ´ 106 Pa
è Aø
)( )
= -1.7 ´ 104 N
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