BEEE-UNIT-2 ANSWERS

1. List the essential components of a DC power supply and provide a basic description of its block
diagram.

For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a d.c. source is required. So it is
Advantageous to convert domestic a.c. supply into d.c.voltages.
Today almost every electronic device needs a DC supply for its smooth operation and they need to be operated
within certain power supply limits. This required DC voltage or DC supply is derived from single phase ac
mains.
A regulated power supply can convert unregulated an AC (alternating current or voltage) to a constant DC
(direct current or voltage). A regulated power supply is used to ensure that the output remains constant even if
the input changes. A regulated DC power supply is also called as a linear power supply, it is an embedded
circuit and consists of various blocks.
The regulated power supply will accept an AC input and give a constant DC output. Figure below shows the
block diagram of a typical regulated DC power supply.
The process of converting a.c. voltage into d.c. voltage is called rectification. This is achieved with
i) Step-down Transformer, ii) Rectifier
iii) Filter and iv) Voltage regulator circuits.

These elements constitute d.c. regulated power supply shown in fig 1 below.

Fig 2.1: Block Diagram of regulated D.C Power Supply

 1. Transformer – steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.
2. Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output varies.
3. Smoothing – smooth the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
4. Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:

Step Down Transformer
A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac mains to the required voltage level. The turn’s
ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the required voltage value. The output of the
transformer is given as an input to the rectifier circuit.
Rectification
Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification process. Rectification is
the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into corresponding direct (DC) quantity. The input
to a rectifier is ac whereas its output is unidirectional pulsating DC. Usually a full wave rectifier or a bridge
rectifier is used to rectify both the half cycles of the ac supply (full wave rectification). Figure below shows a
full wave bridge rectifier.'
DC Filtration
The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very high ripple content. But this is
not we want, we want a pure ripple free DC
Regulation
This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. The output voltage or current will change or fluctuate
when there is change in the input from ac mains or due to change in load current at the output of the regulated
power supply or due to other factors like temperature changes. This problem can be eliminated by using a
regulator. A regulator will maintain the output constant even when changes at the input or any other changes
occur. Transistor series regulator, Fixed and variable IC regulators or a zener diode operated in the zener
region can be used depending on their applications. IC’s like 78XX and 79XX are used to obtained fixed
values of voltages at the output. waveform. Hence a filter is used. Different types of filters are used such as
capacitor filter, LC filter, Choke input filter, π type filter.

2. Explain the basic operation of a full-wave bridge rectifier when converting AC voltage to DC
voltage.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER.
Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit is that
of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying
diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The main
advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special center tapped transformer, thereby
reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge
network and the load to the other side as shown below.
The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current
during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below (fig
7)

The Positive Half-cycle

 The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series (fig 8), but diodes D1
and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same
direction as before.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is
also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC
voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows
through two diodes instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x
0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input V MAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply
frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply).

3. State the purpose of a capacitor filter in a power supply circuit and explain its significance

This is the simplest form of the filter circuit and in this arrangement a high value capacitor C is placed
directly across the output terminals, as shown in figure. During the conduction period it gets charged and
stores up energy to it during non-conduction period. Through this process, the time duration during
which Ft is to be noted here that the capacitor C gets charged to the peak because there is no resistance
(except the negligible forward resistance of diode) in the charging path. But the discharging time is quite
large (roughly 100 times more than the charging time depending upon the value of RL) because it
discharges through load resistance RL.

The function of the capacitor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The large value capacitor C
offers a low impedance shunt path to the ac components or ripples but offers high impedance to the dc
component. Thus ripples get bypassed through capacitor C and only dc component flows through the
load resistance RL

Capacitor filter is very popular because of its low cost, small size, light weight and good
characteristics.
CAPACITOR FILTER WITH FWR
 Here are some specific examples of how a capacitor filter can improve the performance and reliability
of electronic devices:
 In audio amplifiers, a capacitor filter can help to reduce noise and improve the sound quality.
 In computers, a capacitor filter can help to improve the stability of the power supply and reduce the
risk of data loss.
 In medical devices, a capacitor filter can help to ensure that the devices operate properly and that
patient safety is not compromised.
Overall, a capacitor filter is an important component of many electronic devices and plays a vital role
in ensuring that they operate properly and reliably.

4. Explain how a basic Zener voltage regulator maintains a constant output voltage and
discuss its significance.
A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward
direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is
above the breakdown voltage or ‘zener’ voltage.
Zener diodes are designed so that their breakdown voltage is much lower for example just 2.4
Volts.

Zener Diode As A Voltage Regulator

1. A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable DC voltage

independent of the load current, temperature and AC line voltage variations. A Zener
diode of break down voltage VZ is reverse connected to an input voltage source V I
across a load resistance RL and a series resistor RS.

2. The voltage across the zener will remain steady at its break down voltage VZ for all
the values of zener current IZ as long as the current remains in the break down region.
Hence a regulated DC output voltage V0=VZ is obtained across RL. Whenever the
input voltage remains within a minimum and maximum voltage. Basically there are
two type of regulations such as:

3. Line Regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are
fixed, only input voltage is changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the
input voltage is maintained above a minimum value.

4. Load Regulation: In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load
resistance is varying. Output volt remains same, as long as the load resistance is
maintained above a minimum value.
 5. Create a block diagram of a Public Address system and provide a brief explanation of its
main components.
A Public Addressing System (PAS) is a sound amplification system used to distribute audio messages or
music to a large audience in public spaces.
It consists of several key components that work together to ensure clear and powerful audio
transmission.
Basic Components:

Microphone: Converts sound waves into electrical signals.

Mixer: Combines audio signals from different sources, allowing control over volume, tone, and
balance.
Voltage Amplifier:
Receives low-level signals from the mixer. Amplifies the voltage of the signals. Prepares
signals for further processing.

Processing Circuit:
Enhances and refines the audio signals. May include equalization (EQ) to adjust frequency
response. Dynamic processing (compression, limiting) for consistent volume.
Driver Amplifier:
Amplifies the processed signals to a level suitable for the power amplifier. Acts as an
intermediary between the processing circuit and the power amplifier.
Power Amplifier:
Takes the amplified signals from the driver amplifier. Increases the power of the signals to drive
the loudspeakers. The power amplifier is a crucial stage for delivering high-quality, high-
powered audio.
Loudspeaker: a Transducer that converts electrical signals from the power amplifier back into
sound waves.
6. Illustrate the circuit diagram of a common emitter amplifier (RC coupled) and discuss its
frequency response characteristics.

The below figure shows a two-stage R.C. coupled amplifier. Here the first stage is connected to
the second stage through the coupling capacitor CC and resistor RC Therefore, this amplifier is
called an RC-coupled amplifier. The resistors R1, R2 form the self bias and R E form stabilization
network. The bypass capacitor at the emitter offers a low reactance path to the signal. This
method of coupling is widely used in cascade amplifier stages.

It can also drive low impedance loads because of its relatively low output impedance. Due to the
non-linear properties of the transistors, this sort of amplifier can also be vulnerable to
temperature variations and create distortion. To get the best performance, careful biassing, the
use of suitable load resistors, and coupling capacitors are required.

Working of RC Coupled Amplifier

When the input voltage is applied to the base of the first transistor through an input
capacitor Cin, it appears as the amplified form across its collector load RC. The output of
the first stage is given to the base of the next stage through coupling capacitor CC. The
second stage does the further amplification of the signal.
 Fig: Two stage RC coupled amplifier circuit diagram
The coupling capacitor CC here helps in blocking the flow of DC components from the first
stage to the second stage of the circuit. Thus the biasing of the second stage will not get
disturbed. The coupling capacitor has some reactance and hence there would be some loss of
signal voltage due to the drop across this capacitor. This loss varies inversely with the frequency
of the applied input signal. As capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency of
the signal.
XC=1/2πfC
We can notice that the total gain is less than the product of the gains from individual stages. This
is because when the second stage is made to follow the first stage, the effective load resistance of
the first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of the second stage.
This reduces the gain of the stage which is loaded by the next stage.

The ratio of output voltage VO to the input voltage VS is known as the amplification or
voltage gain of the amplifier. Also called the loop gain, denoted as AV

AV=VO/VS

Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

Frequency response of RC coupled amplifier is uniform over the mid-frequency range of 50 Hz

to 20 kHz. The voltage gain drops off at low < 50 Hz and high > 20 kHz frequencies. The
frequency response curve of RC coupled with the amplifier is shown in Figure. The behavior of
the amplifier is given below along with the bandwidth of an RC coupled amplifier between 50
Hz to 20kHz.
 Fig: Frequency response of RC coupled amplifier

Low Frequencies
At low frequencies (< 50 Hz), the reactance of coupling capacitor Cc is quite high and hence
very small part of the signal will pass from one stage to the next stage. The reactance of CE is
also high at low frequencies. This high reactance cannot shunt the emitter resistance
RE effectively. Due to these two factors, the voltage gain falls at low frequencies.
High Frequencies
At high frequencies (> 20 kHz), the reactance CC is very small and it behaves as a short circuit.
This increases the loading effect of the next stage and serves to reduce the voltage gain. Also, the
capacitive reactance of the base-emitter junction is low, and at high frequencies increases the
base current. Therefore the β value reduces. Due to these two reasons, the voltage gain falls at
high frequencies.
Mid Frequencies
At mid frequencies (50 Hz to 20 kHz), the voltage gain of the amplifier is constant. The effect of
coupling capacitors in this frequency range is such as maintaining a uniform voltage gain. Thus,
as the frequency increases in this range, the reactance of C C decreases which tends to increase the
gain. However, at the same time, lower reactance means higher loading of the first stage and
hence lower gain. These two factors almost cancel each other, resulting in a uniform gain at mid-
frequency.

7. Explain the basic operation of a Half wave rectifier and compare with full-wave rectifier.

Rectification methods to convert AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) include full-wave

rectification and half-wave rectification. In both cases, rectification is performed by utilizing the
characteristic that current flows only the positive direction in a diode.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

In this section, let us understand how a half-wave rectifier transforms AC into DC.

1. A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The obtained
secondary low voltage is applied to the diode.
2. The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and reverse biased
during the negative half cycle.
 Difference between Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier
Half-Wave Rectifier (HWR) Full-Wave Rectifier (FWR)
Converts only one-half of the
Converts both halves of the AC input cycle into
Definition AC input cycle into DC
DC output.
output.
Simple, consists of a single Complex involves at least two diodes (in Centre-
Circuit Complexity
diode. tapped) or four diodes (in bridge configuration).
Lower, as it utilizes only half Higher, as it utilizes the entire AC cycle, thus
Efficiency
of the AC cycle. converting more power.
Higher, resulting in a more Lower, offering a smoother DC output with less
Ripple Factor
fluctuating output. fluctuation.
Twice the input frequency uses both halves of
Output Frequency Equal to the input frequency.
the AC cycle.
Poor, due to higher ripple
Voltage Regulation Better, owing to a smoother output waveform.
content.
Transformer
Lower, generally around Higher, approximately 0.812 for centre-tapped
Utilization Factor
0.287. and 0.955 for bridge rectifier.
(TUF)
For centre-tapped: Twice the peak voltage of the
Peak Inverse Equal to the peak voltage of
AC input. For bridge rectifier: Equal to the peak
Voltage (PIV) the AC input.
voltage of the AC input.
Average Output
Vavg = Vm/pi Vavg = 2Vm/pi
Voltage
Rectification About 81.2% for both centre-tapped and bridge
Approximately 40.6%.
Efficiency rectifiers.
Applications Suitable for low-power Commonly used in power supplies, battery
applications signal charging and signal processing.
 demodulation.
Generally cheaper due to Slightly more expensive due to the increased
Cost
simpler construction. number of components.

Full-wave rectification rectifies the negative component of the input voltage to a positive
voltage, then converts it into DC (pulse current) utilizing a diode bridge configuration. In contrast, half-
wave rectification removes just the negative voltage component using a single diode before converting to
DC. Afterward, the waveform is smoothed by charging/discharging a capacitor, resulting in a clean DC
signal. From this, it can be said that full-wave rectification is a more efficient method than half-wave
rectification since the entire waveform is used. Also, a ripple voltage that appears after smoothing will
vary depending on the capacitance of this capacitor and the load.
Given the same capacitance and load, ripple voltage is smaller with full-wave rectification than
half-wave rectification. Of course, it goes without saying that the smaller the ripple voltage the better the
stability.

8. Identify and discuss the key advantages of using RC coupling in amplifier circuits and
provide examples of its applications.

There are some advantages of RC coupled amplifier which are given below,
 It used the resistor and the capacitor which are not expensive, so the cost is low.
 The circuit is very compact and extremely light.
 The frequency response of RC coupled amplifier is excellent.
 It offers a constant gain over a wide frequency band.
 RC coupling is commonly used in audio amplifiers and radio receivers due to its simplicity and
effectiveness. It is also used in other types of amplifiers, such as those used in transmitters and
receivers, modulators and demodulators, oscillators, and signal generators.
Applications of RC coupling in amplifier circuits:
 Audio amplifiers:

RC coupling is used in audio amplifiers to provide a stable frequency response at lower

frequencies. This is important because the human ear is most sensitive to low frequencies.
 Radio receivers:
RC coupling is used in radio receivers to amplify the weak signals received from antennas.
 Transmitters:
RC coupling is used in transmitters to amplify the signals that are sent out from antennas.
 Modulators and demodulators:
RC coupling is used in modulators and demodulators to shift the frequency of signals.
 Oscillators and signal generators:
RC coupling is used in oscillators and signal generators to generate stable AC signals.
RC coupling is a versatile and effective method of coupling amplifier stages. It is used in a wide variety
of applications, from audio amplifiers to radio receivers to oscillators and signal generators.

9. Create an outline of the block diagram of an electronic instrumentation system and identify
its core elements to show an understanding of its structure.
Block diagram of an electronic instrumentation system.

It is branch of engineering which deals with various types of instrument to record, monitor,
indicate and control various physical parameters such as pressure, temperature, etc.
The block diagram shown above is of basic instrumentation system. It consist of primary sensing
element, variable manipulation element, data transmission element and data presentation
element.

Primary sensing element

The primary sensing element is also known as sensor. Basically transducers are used as a
primary sensing element. Here, the physical quantity (such as temperature, pressure etc.) are
sensed and then converted into analogues signal.

Variable conversion element

It converts the output of primary sensing element into suitable form without changing
information. Basically these are secondary transducers.

Variable manipulation element

The output of transducer may be electrical signal i.e. voltage, current or other electrical
parameter. Here, manipulation means change in numerical value of signal. This element is used
to convert the signal into suitable range.

Data transmission element

Sometimes it is not possible to give direct read out of the quality at a particular place (Example –
Measurement of temperature in the furnace). In such a case, the data should transfer from one
place to another place through channel which is known as data transmission element. Typically
transmission path are pneumatic pipe, electrical cable and radio links. When radio link is used,
the electronic instrumentation system is called as telemetry system.

Data presentation or controlling element

Finally the output is recorded or given to the controller to perform action. It performs different
functions like indicating, recording or controlling.

10. Explain how an electronic instrumentation system is applied to measure and control
physical parameters in diverse applications, providing practical examples.
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS: An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or
value of the quantity to be measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc.
Generally instruments are classified in to two categories. Instrument Absolute& Instrument Secondary
Instrument
practical examples
1. Mechanical balance and
2. Electronic weighing scale.
3. Eye pressure sensor
4. ECG
Electronic weighing scale.
An electronic weighing scale has a much more modular structure. The system is composed
of a separate component for mass measurement (the sensor), electronic circuits for read-
out, a microprocessor for data processing and a digital display, as shown in Fig. 1.2b. The
sensor is basically a structure which contains strain-sensitive resistors. These are connected
in a Wheatstone bridge., this is basically the electrical equivalent of the mechanical
balance. The structured design of the electronic weighing scale offers advantages such as:
user-friendliness (reduced requirements on expertise and accuracy of the operator),
flexibility (the price per unit mass can be used as additional input to give an indication in
weight and price), objectivity of the measurement (no readout error), and repair (simple
replacement of modules).