UNIT-V: BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND INSTRUMENTATION Rectifiers and power

supplies: Block diagram description of a dc power supply, working of a full wave bridge rectifier,
capacitor filter (no analysis), working of simple zener voltage regulator. Amplifiers: Block diagram of
Public Address system, Circuit diagram and working of common emitter (RC coupled) amplifier with
its frequency response. Electronic Instrumentation: Block diagram of an electronic instrumentation
system.
Power supply:
For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a D.C. source is required. So
it is advantageous to convert domestic A.C. supply into d.c. voltages. The process of
converting A.C. voltage into D.C. voltage is called as rectification. This is achieved with i)
Step-down Transformer, ii) Rectifier,
iii) Filter and iv) Voltage regulator circuits.
These elements constitute D.C. regulated power supply shown in the fig 2.1 below.

Fig 2.1: Block Diagram of regulated D.C Power Supply

 Transformer – steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing – smooth the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

The block diagram of a regulated D.C. power supply consists of step-down transformer,
rectifier, filter, voltage regulator and load. An ideal regulated power supply is an electronics
circuit designed to provide a predetermined D.C. voltage Vo which is independent of the load
current and variations in the input voltage ad temperature. If the output of a regulator circuit
is a AC voltage then it is termed as voltage stabilizer, whereas if the output is a DC voltage
then it is termed as voltage regulator.
RECTIFIER
A rectifier is a device, which converts A.C. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating D.C. voltage.
The process of converting A.C. voltage into D.C. voltage is called as rectification. Any
 electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high
resistance to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier.

Power Supply block diagram parts

(or)

The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:

Electrical Transformer
Rectifier bridge (rectifier diodes)
Filter (capacitors)
Voltage regulator

Step Down Transformer

A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac mains to the required voltage level.
The turn’s ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the required voltage value. The output
of the transformer is given as an input to the rectifier circuit.
Rectification
Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification process.
Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into corresponding direct
(DC) quantity. The input to a rectifier is ac whereas its output is unidirectional pulsating DC. Usually
a full wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used to rectify both the half cycles of the ac supply (full
wave rectification). Figure below shows a full wave bridge rectifier.'
DC Filtration'
The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very high ripple content. But
this is not we want, we want a pure ripple free DC
Regulation
This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. The output voltage or current will change or
fluctuate when there is change in the input from ac mains or due to change in load current at the output
of the regulated power supply or due to other factors like temperature changes. This problem can be
eliminated by using a regulator. A regulator will maintain the output constant even when changes at the
input or any other changes occur. Transistor series regulator, Fixed and variable IC regulators or a zener
diode operated in the zener region can be used depending on their applications. IC’s like 78XX and
79XX are used to obtained fixed values of voltages at the output. waveform. Hence a filter is used.
Different types of filters are used such as capacitor filter, LC filter, Choke input filter, π type filter.
CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS
Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.
1) Half - Wave Rectifier
2) Full – Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:
A Half – wave rectifier as shown in fig 2.2 is one, which converts A.C. voltage into a
pulsating voltage using only one half cycle of the applied A.C. voltage.

Fig 2.2: Basic structure of Half-Wave Rectifier

The A.C. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer-rectifying
element i.e., p- n junction diode and the source of A.C. voltage, all connected is series. The
A.C. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer.
 Vi=Vm sin (wt)
The input to the rectifier circuit, Where Vm is the peak value of secondary A.C.voltage.
Operation:
For the positive half-cycle of input A.C. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence
it conducts. Now a current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across R L. The
waveform of the diode current (or) load current is shown in fig 2.3.
D = ON : Conducts
For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not
Conduct. Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative
half- cycle no power is delivered to the load.
D = OFF : Does not Conducts

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half
cycles of the applied ac voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two
diodes are used in this circuit. The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a
center-tap transformer. A center-tap transformer is the one, which produces two
sinusoidal wavefoRMS of same magnitude and frequency but out of phase with respect
to the ground in the secondary winding of the transformer. The full wave rectifier is
shown in the fig below
 During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the same
time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not conduct.
The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will b equal to the input
voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the
anode of D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load
current flows through D2 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.
It is noted that the load current flows in the both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same
direction through the load resistance.
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier
circuit above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier
uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to
produce the desired output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require
a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary
winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side
as shown below.
The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle.
 .
The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The Positive Half-cycle

During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown
above figure(fig 7)

The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series (fig
8), but diodes D1 and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current
 flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

zener voltage regulator

A voltage regulator is a device that controls the amount of voltage.
Public Address System
When a large gathering of people is to be addressed, the sound must be amplified so that people
away from the stage can listen to it comfortably. This type of system is called as Public Address
system or P.A. system.
A public Address System or PA system is an electronic system that includes acoustic signal
converting, mixing, amplifying, and playing. A PA system has microphones, amplifiers, and
loudspeakers as its main components or equipment. We know that the intensity of the sound
decreases with the distance. Also, a particular sound can be affected or distorted by the other
sound if the level or volume of the sound is the same. So, if we want to deliver sound energy
over a long distance or highlight a particular sound or voice in a large crowd or gathering then
we need a PA system. Because the PA systems provide the amplification of the sound for
comfortable listening.

Block diagram of Public Address system:

Components of a PA System
1.Microphone
The microphone is a very important part or component of a PA system. The microphone
basically is a transducer that converts acoustic energy or sound energy into electrical energy.
It continuously generates the pulsating electrical voltage according to the frequency of the
sound energy applied to it. Various types of microphones are used in the PA system. The main
basic two types of microphones are,
1. Handheld Microphone
2. Lapel Microphone
Other different types of microphones are,
 Wired Microphone
 Wireless Microphone
2. Amplifier
The amplifier is the second part of a PA system. The main function of the amplifier is to amplify
or increase the volume level of the audio signal that can drive a loudspeaker. The requirement
or size of the amplifier depends upon the number and size of the loudspeaker. If the size of the
loudspeaker is very large or so many loudspeakers are to be connected, then a very powerful
amplifier is required. The output of the amplifier is measured in watts or kilowatts.

3. Loudspeaker
Loudspeakers play a very important role in the PA system. It converts electrical energy into
acoustic energy or sound energy. The loudspeakers are generally connected to the amplifier
and it generates sound according to the audio signal provided by the amplifier. There are
different types of loudspeakers are available according to their operating frequency.

4. Mixer
A mixer is not a necessary part of a PA system. But if there are multiple audio sources or
multiple microphones used in the PA system then a mixer is must require. The mixer is an
electronic device that can control multiple sound sources simultaneously. It can mix all the
sound sources together and play with a single loudspeaker with the help of an amplifier. So the
mixer is generally connected before the amplifier. Nowadays, there are so many amplifiers are
available in the market that already have an inbuilt mixer. So there is no need for an external
additional mixer. All the microphones or sound sources can be connected directly to the
amplifier.

RC coupled Amplifier
We know that a transistor is used as an amplifier, to obtain a high signal from a low signal
quantity. The amplifier has to be designed in such a way it can amplify the signal and produce
the output by varying the input applied to it. But for high gain and to reduce the loading effect
we can use more than two amplifiers. By means of coupling this can be achieved, here we will
discuss the concept of RC coupled amplifier and its operation.

An RC-coupled amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that uses a resistor-capacitor (RC)

network to couple the output of one stage of amplification to the input of the next stage. The
capacitor blocks any DC voltage, while allowing AC signals to pass through. The resistor and
capacitor values are carefully selected to optimize the frequency response of the amplifier. This
configuration is commonly used in audio amplifiers and radio receivers due to its simplicity
and effectiveness.

Purpose of the RC coupled Amplifier device

The purpose of the coupling device is:

o To transfer a.c. the output of one stage, to the input of the next stage.
o To isolate the d.c. conditions of one stage from the next stage.
o To reduce or eliminate the loading effect.

Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

Frequency response of RC coupled amplifier is uniform over the mid-frequency range of 50
Hz to 20 kHz. The voltage gain drops off at low < 50 Hz and high > 20 kHz frequencies.
The frequency response curve of RC coupled with the amplifier is shown in Figure. The
behavior of the amplifier is given below along with the bandwidth of an RC coupled
amplifier between 50 Hz to 20kHz.
Electronic Instrumentation
" Instrumentation is defined as the art of science of measurement, calibration and control of
process or process related equipment's."

It is branch of engineering which deals with various types of instrument to record, monitor,
indicate and control various physical parameters such as pressure, temperature, etc.

Electronic Instrumentation is about the design, realisation and use of elec- tronic. systems for
the measurement of electrical and non-electrical quantities.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

The block diagram shown above is of basic instrumentation system. It consist of primary
sensing element, variable manipulation element, data transmission element and data
presentation element.

Primary sensing element

The primary sensing element is also known as sensor. Basically transducers are used as a
primary sensing element. Here, the physical quantity (such as temperature, pressure etc.) are
sensed and then converted into analogues signal.
Variable conversion element
It converts the output of primary sensing element into suitable form without changing
information. Basically these are secondary transducers.
Variable manipulation element
The output of transducer may be electrical signal i.e. voltage, current or other electrical
parameter. Here, manipulation means change in numerical value of signal. This element is used
to convert the signal into suitable range.
Data transmission element
Sometimes it is not possible to give direct read out of the quality at a particular place (Example
– Measurement of temperature in the furnace). In such a case, the data should transfer from
one place to another place through channel which is known as data transmission element.
Typically transmission path are pneumatic pipe, electrical cable and radio links. When radio
link is used, the electronic instrumentation system is called as telemetry system.
Data presentation or controlling element
Finally, the output is recorded or given to the controller to perform action. It performs different
functions like indicating, recording or controlling