LESSON 5.

DIFFUSIONS IN SOLID
Intended Learning Outcomes

After the completion of the chapter, students will be able to:

1. Name and describe the two atomic mechanisms of diffusion.
2. Distinguish between steady-state and non steady-state diffusion.

Solid State Diffusion

• Means of mass transport within solid materials by stepwise atomic motion.

• Diffusion couple – formed by joining of two different metals together so that there is
intimate contact between the two faces.

• The couple is heated for an extended period at an elevated temperature, copper atoms
have migrated or diffused into the nickel, and that nickel has diffused into copper. This
process, whereby atoms of one metal diffuse into another, is termed as interdiffusion or
impurity diffusion.
• Diffusion also occur for pure metals, but all atoms exchanging positions are of the same
type; this is termed as self-diffusion.
• Self-Diffusion – atoms migrate in a random manner throughout the crystal

• For an atom to make such a move, two conditions must be met:

o There must be an empty adjacent site
o The atom must have sufficient energy to break bonds with its neighbor atoms
and then cause some lattice distortion during the displacement

Diffusion Mechanism

• Vacancy Diffusion – involves the interchange of an atom from a normal lattice position to
an adjacent vacant lattice site or vacancy.

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 • Interstitial Diffusion – involves atoms that migrate from an interstitial position to a
neighboring one that is empty; found for inter diffusion of impurities such as hydrogen,
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, which have atoms that are small enough to fit into the
interstitial positions; solute atoms diffuse by jumping from one interstitial site to another.

Steady State Diffusion

• Steady State Diffusion – diffusion flux does not change with time.
• Diffusion flux (J) – how fast diffusion occurs, or the rate of mass transfer; defined as the
number of atoms (M) crossing a unit area (A) perpendicular to a given direction per unit
time(t).
𝑀
𝐽=
𝐴𝑡
• One common example of steady-state diffusion is the diffusion of atoms of a gas through
a plate of metal for which the concentrations (or pressures) of the diffusing species on
both surfaces of the plate are held constant

• When atoms of gas are diffused at 𝑥𝐴 , the diffusing species is at concentration A (𝐶𝐴 ) and
when atoms of gas are diffused at 𝑥𝐵 , the diffusing species is at concentration B (𝐶𝐵 ).
• When concentration C is plotted versus position (or distance) within the solid x, the
resulting is termed as concentration profile; the slope at a particular point on the curve is
the concentration gradient. This slope shows the concentrations of the diffusing species
are held constant.
𝑑𝐶 ∆𝐶 𝐶𝐴 − 𝐶𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = =
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥 𝑥𝐴 − 𝑥𝐵
• For diffusion problems, it is sometimes convenient to express concentration in terms of
mass of diffusing species per unit volume of solid (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 or 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 ).

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Fick’s First Law
• Diffusion flux for steady-state diffusion in one direction

• The constant of proportionality D is called diffusion coefficient, which is expressed in

square meters per second. The negative sign in this expression indicates the direction of
diffusion from high to a low concentration.
• One practical example of steady-state diffusion is found in the purification of hydrogen
gas. One side of a thin sheet of palladium metal is exposed to the impure gas composed
of hydrogen and other gaseous species such as nitrogen, oxygen, and water vapor. The
hydrogen selectively diffuses through the sheet to the opposite side, which is maintained
at a constant and lower hydrogen pressure.

Sample Problem
A plate of iron is exposed to a carburizing (carbon-rich) atmosphere on one side and a
decarburizing (carbon-deficient) atmosphere on the other side at 700℃ (1300℉). If a condition of
steady state is achieved, calculate the diffusion flux of carbon through the plate if the
concentrations of carbon at positions of 5 and 10 mm beneath the carburizing surface are 1.2 and
0.8 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , respectively. Assume a diffusion coefficient of 3 𝑥 10−11 𝑚2 /𝑠 at this temperature.

𝑘𝑔
𝐶𝐴 − 𝐶𝐵 𝑚2 (1.2 − 0.8) 3
𝐽 = −𝐷 ( ) = − (3𝑥10 −11
)( 𝑚 ) = 2.4𝑥10−9 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 ∙ 𝑠
𝑥𝐴 − 𝑥𝐵 𝑠 (0.005 − 0.010) 𝑚

Nonsteady-State Diffusion

• Nonsteady diffusion – most practical diffusion; diffusion flux and the concentration gradient
at some particular point in a solid vary with time.

• Fick’s second law – describes the rate of accumulation (or depletion) of concentration
within the volume as proportional to the local curvature of the concentration gradient;
case when the diffusion flux depends on time

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Factors that Influence Diffusion

• Diffusing Species - host material influence the diffusion coefficient

• Temperature - most profound influence on the coefficients and diffusion rates
• Lattice Structure – faster in open lattices
• Presence of Defects – defects acts as circuit paths for diffusing species

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LESSON 6. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, APPLICATIONS AND
PROCESSING OF METALS
Intended Learning Outcomes

After the completion of the chapter, students will be able to:

1. List and explain mechanical properties of metals.
2. Describe dislocation and plastic deformation in materials.
3. Explain and compare fracture, fatigue and creep.
4. List and explain types of metal alloys
5. Outline the fabrication of metal alloys.

Introduction

• The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the relationship between its response or
deformation to an applied load or force.
• Key mechanical design properties are stiffness, strength, hardness, ductility and
toughness.
• Factors to be considered include the nature of the applied load (tensile, compressive or
shear) and its duration, as well as the environmental conditions.
• Mechanical properties are of concern to a variety of parties.
o Structural Engineers – determine stresses and stress distributions within members
that are subjected to well-defined loads.
o Material and Metallurgical Engineers – concerned with producing and fabricating
materials to meet service requirements as predicted by stress analyses.

Important Mechanical Properties

• Elasticity – it regains its original shape when the external force on it is removed
• Plasticity – it retains its deformity when the external force on it is remove
• Ductility – ability to undergo significant plastic deformation before rupture or breaking
• Toughness – ability to resist fracture
• Malleability - ability to be hammered, pressed, or rolled into thin sheets without breaking
• Stiffness – measures how much stress can be applied to an element before it deforms
permanently or fractures
• Strength – resists external force without breaking or yielding
o Tensile Strength – ability to resists force attempting to pull it apart
o Compressive Strength – ability to withstand being crushed
o Shear Strength – ability to tolerate force trying to slice or cut it
o Torsional Strength – ability to resists force attempting to twist it
• Creep - ability to withstand sustained loading without significant continuous deformation;
significant factor at significantly elevated temperatures.
• Resilience – ability to absorb energy and still return to its original state

Concepts of Stress and Strain

• When a metal is subjected to a load (force), it is distorted or deformed, no matter how

strong the metal or light the load. If the load is small, the distortion will probably disappear
when the load is removed. The intensity, or degree, of distortion is known as strain.

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 • The displacement or size of the deformation is directly proportional to the deforming force
or load.

• In stress-strain curve, strain or the deformation is independent and comes as result of the
externally applied force, so it is taken in x-axis, whereas stress comes in order to resist
the deformation in terms of resisting force so it is dependent on strain and comes in y-
axis.
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 → 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 → 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 → 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
• Hence, strain comes first and independent and in x-axis, whereas stress comes later and
dependent on strain and in y-axis.

Stress
• Engineering Stress is the applied load divided by the original cross-sectional area of a
material. Also known as nominal stress.

Type of Stress
• Tensile Stress - type of stress in which the two sections of material on either side of a
stress plane tend to pull apart or elongate
• Compressive Stress - reverse of tensile stress; adjacent parts of the material tend to press
against each other through a typical stress plane
• Shear Stress - exists when two parts of a material tend to slide across each other in any
typical plane of shear upon application of force parallel to that plane

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Strain
• Engineering strain is the amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
Also known as nominal strain.

Type of Strain
• Elastic Deformation - transitory dimensional change that exists only while the initiating
stress is applied and disappears immediately upon removal of the stress; all the atoms
are displaced the same amount and still maintain their relative geometry. When the
stresses are removed, all the atoms return to their original positions and no permanent
deformation occurs.
• Plastic Deformation - dimensional change that does not disappear when the initiating
stress is removed.

Stress-Strain Behavior

Hooke’s Law – condition if a metal is lightly stressed, a temporary deformation, presumably

permitted by an elastic displacement of the atoms in the space lattice, takes place

Young’s Modules (Elastic Modulus) – referred to as modulus of elasticity; measure of elasticity;

numerical evaluation of Hooke's Law, namely the ratio of stress to strain

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Stress-Strain Relationship

a. Proportional Limit - point on the curve up to which the value of stress and strain remains
proportional
b. Elastic Limit - material will return back to its original position
c. Yield Stress Point - defined as the stress after which material extension takes place more
quickly with no or little increase in load
d. Ultimate Stress Point - maximum strength that material have to bear stress before
breaking
e. Breaking Stress (Point of Rupture) - point where strength of material breaks

Types of Metal Alloys

Ferrous Alloys

Ferrous alloys - those of which iron is the prime constituent—are produced in larger quantities
than any other metal.
1. Steels - iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other alloying
elements
a. Low-Carbon Steels – generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C and are
unresponsive to heat treatments intended to form marten site; strengthening is
accomplished by cold work; these alloys are relatively soft and weak but have
outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are machinable, weldable,
and, of all steels, are the least expensive to produce; typical applications include

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 automobile body components, structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle
iron), and sheets that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans
b. Medium-Carbon Steels - have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and
0.60 wt%; these alloys may be heat-treated by austenitizing, quenching, and then
tempering to improve their mechanical properties; most often utilized in the
tempered condition, having microstructures of tempered marten site; have low
harden abilities and can be successfully heat-treated only in very thin sections and
with very rapid quenching rates; applications include railway wheels and tracks,
gears, crankshafts, and other machine parts and high-strength structural
components calling for a combination of high strength, wear resistance, and
toughness
c. High-Carbon Steels - normally having carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%,
are the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels; always used
in a hardened and tempered condition and, as such, are especially wear resistant
and capable of holding a sharp cutting edge; utilized as cutting tools and dies for
forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives, razors, hacksaw blades,
springs, and high-strength wire
d. Stainless Steels - highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of
environments, especially the ambient atmosphere;
i. Martensitic stainless steels - capable of being heat-treated in such a way
that marten site is the prime micro constituent
ii. Ferritic and austenitic stainless steels - hardened and strengthened by cold
work because they are not heat-treatable; most corrosion resistant
because of the high chromium contents and also the nickel additions
2. Cast Irons - class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14 wt%; in practice,
however, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C
a. Gray Irons – carbon and silicon contents vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0
and 3.0 wt%, respectively; comparatively weak and brittle in tension as a
consequence of its microstructure; very effective in damping vibrational energy;
base structures for machines and heavy equipment that are exposed to vibrations
are frequently constructed of this material
b. Ductile or Nodular Irons – adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to
the gray iron before casting produces a distinctly different microstructure and set
of mechanical properties resulting to ductile irons; typical applications for this
material include valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, and other automotive
and machine components
c. White Iron – white appearance on the fracture surface of low-silicon cast irons
containing less than 1.0 wt% Si and undergo rapid cooling rates, most of the
carbon exists as cementite instead of graphite; extremely hard but also very brittle;
use is limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and wear-resistant
surface, without a high degree of ductility—for example, as rollers in rolling mills
d. Malleable Iron – white iron is used as an intermediary in the production of yet
another cast iron; relatively high strength and appreciable ductility or malleability;
applications include connecting rods, transmission gears, and differential cases for

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 the automotive industry, and also flanges, pipe fittings, and valve parts for railroad,
marine, and other heavy-duty services
e. Compacted Graphite Iron – carbon exists as graphite, whose formation is
promoted by the presence of silicon; silicon content ranges between 1.7 and 3.0
wt%, whereas carbon concentration is normally between 3.1 and 4.0 wt%

Non-Ferrous Alloys

1. Copper and Its Alloys - soft and ductile that it is difficult to machine; highly resistant to
corrosion in diverse environments including the ambient atmosphere, seawater, and some
industrial chemicals;
a. brasses - most common copper alloys; uses for brass alloys include costume
jewelry, cartridge casings, automotive radiators, musical instruments, electronic
packaging, and coins
b. bronzes - stronger than the brasses, yet they still have a high degree of corrosion
resistance;
c. beryllium copper - most common heat-treatable copper alloys; tensile strengths as
high as 1400 MPa (200,000 psi), excellent electrical and corrosion properties, and
wear resistance when properly lubricated; they may be cast, hot worked, or cold
worked; applications include jet aircraft landing gear bearings and bushings,
springs, and surgical and dental instruments
2. Aluminum and Its Alloys - characterized by a relatively low density, high electrical and
thermal conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion in some common environments,
including the ambient atmosphere; common applications of aluminum alloys include
aircraft structural parts, beverage cans, bus bodies, and automotive parts (engine blocks,
pistons, and manifolds)
3. Magnesium and Its Alloys - most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density
which is the lowest of all the structural metals; used where light weight is an important
consideration; , magnesium is now employed in a variety of handheld devices (e.g., chain
saws, power tools, hedge clippers) in automobiles (e.g., steering wheels and columns,
seat frames, transmission cases)
4. Titanium and Its Alloys - relatively new engineering materials that possess an
extraordinary combination of properties; extremely strong; room-temperature tensile
strengths as high as 1400 MPa (200,000 psi) are attainable, yielding remarkable specific
strengths ; commonly utilized in airplane structures, space vehicles, and surgical implants,
and in the petroleum and chemical industries.
5. Refractory Metals – metals that have extremely high melting temperatures; re utilized for
extrusion dies and structural parts in space vehicles; incandescent light filaments, x-ray
tubes, and welding electrodes employ tungsten alloys
6. Super Alloys - superlative combinations of properties; most are used in aircraft turbine
components, which must withstand exposure to severely oxidizing environments and high
temperatures for reasonable time periods; utilized in nuclear reactors and petrochemical
equipment

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 7. Noble Metals - group of eight elements that have some physical characteristics in
common; expensive (precious) and are superior or notable (noble) in properties—that is,
characteristically soft, ductile, and oxidation resistant; used for chemical laboratory
equipment, as a catalyst (especially in the manufacture of gasoline), and in thermocouples
to measure elevated temperatures.

Forming Operations

Forming Operation – fabrication process in which the shape of a metal piece is changed by plastic
deformation

Process of Deformation:
• Hot Working – when deformation is achieved at a temperature above that at which
recrystallization occurs
• Cold Working – produces an increase in strength with the attendant decrease in ductility,
because the metal strain hardens; advantages over hot working include a higher-quality
surface finish, better mechanical properties and a greater variety of them, and closer
dimensional control of the finished piece

Operations:
a. Forging - mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a normally hot metal; this
may be accomplished by the application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing

b. Rolling - the most widely used deformation process, consists of passing a piece of metal
between two rolls; a reduction in thickness results from compressive stresses exerted by
the rolls

c. Extrusion - a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a compressive force that is
applied to a ram; the extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape and a reduced
cross-sectional area

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 d. Drawing - pulling of a metal piece through a die having a tapered bore by means of a
tensile force that is applied on the exit side

Casting

Casting - fabrication process whereby a totally molten metal is poured into a mold cavity having
the desired shape; upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold but experiences
some shrinkage
a. Sand Casting - two-piece mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern that has the
shape of the intended casting; most common method, ordinary sand is used as the mold
material
b. Die Casting - liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure and at a relatively high
velocity and allowed to solidify with the pressure maintained
c. Investment Casting - the pattern is made from a wax or plastic that has a low melting
temperature; around the pattern is poured a fluid slurry, which sets up to form a solid mold
or investment; plaster of paris is usually used
d. Lost Foam Casting - the expendable pattern is a foam that can be formed by compressing
polystyrene beads into the desired shape and then bonding them together by heating
e. Continuous Casting - the refined and molten metal is cast directly into a continuous strand
that may have either a rectangular or circular cross section; solidification occurs in a water-
cooled die having the desired cross-sectional geometry; continuous casting is highly
automated and more efficient

Miscellaneous

a. Powder Metallurgy - involves the compaction of powdered metal, followed by a heat

treatment to produce a more dense piece
b. Welding - two or more metal parts are joined to form a single piece when one-part
fabrication is expensive or inconvenient

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LESSON 7. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES, APPLICATIONS,
PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS
Intended Learning Outcomes

After the completion of the chapter, students will be able to:

1. Name and describe the two atomic mechanisms of diffusion.
2. Distinguish between steady-state and nonsteady-state diffusion.

Ceramics

• Ceramic materials are inorganic, non-metallic materials and things made from compounds
of a metal and a non-metal
• Ceramic materials may be crystalline or partly crystalline
• Ceramic materials are formed by the action of heat and subsequent cooling
• Bonds are ionic, covalent or mix of ionic and covalent bond

• Clay was one of the earliest materials used to produce ceramics.

• Ceramic materials for which the atomic bonding is predominantly ionic, the crystal
structures may be thought of as being composed of electrically charged ions instead of
atoms
o Metallic ions or cations – positively charged; give up valence electrons
o Nonmetallic ions or anions – negatively charged; accept valence electrons

Factors that Determine Crystal Structure

1. Crystal must be electrically neutral; that is, all the cation positive charges must be
balanced by an equal number of anion negative charges. The chemical formula of a
compound indicates the ratio of cations to anions, or the composition that achieves this
charge balance. For example, in calcium fluoride, each calcium ion has +2 charge (𝐶𝑎2+ ),
and associated with each fluoride ion is a single negative charge (𝐹 − ). Thus, there must
be twice as many 𝐹 − as 𝐶𝑎2+ ions, which is reflected in the chemical formula 𝐶𝑎𝐹2 .

2. Relative size or ionic radii of the cations and anions 𝑟𝐶 and 𝑟𝐴 , respectively. Because the
metallic elements give up electrons when ionized, cations are ordinarily smaller than
anions, and consequently, the ration of 𝑟𝐶 /𝑟𝐴 is less than unity or one. Stable ceramic

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 crystal structures form when those anions surrounding a cation are all in contact with that
cation.

Properties of Ceramic Materials

a. Brittle, hard, strong in compression, durability.

b. Weak in shearing and tension
c. Chemically inert (withstand chemical erosion)
d. Non-conductor of heat (withstand very high temperatures)
e. Excellent dielectric
f. Low cost of raw materials
g. Good appearance control

Crystal Structures of Ceramics

a. 𝐴𝑋-Type Crystal Structures – ceramic materials with equal number of cations and anions

Rock Salt Structure

Coordination Number: 6 Cesium Chloride Structure
Zinc Blende Structure Coordination Number: 8
Coordination Number: 4
The cation at the center
coordinated to its Anions are located at each
All ions are tetrahedrally of the corners of a cube,
neigboring anions (four
coordinated whereas the cube center
from sides, two from top
Example: ZnS, ZnTe, and is a single cation.
and bottom)
SiC Example: CsCl
Example: NaCl, MgO,
MnS, LiF, and FeO

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 b. 𝐴𝑚 𝑋𝑝 -Type Crystal Structures – ceramic materials with unequal number of cations and
anions

c. 𝐴𝑚 𝐵𝑛 𝑋𝑝 -Type Crystal Structures – ceramic materials with more than one type of cation

Silicate Ceramics

• Most common elements on earth are Si and O. Silicates are materials composed primarily
of silicon and oxygen.
• It is more conveniently represented in terms of interconnecting 𝑆𝑖𝑂44− tetrahedral.
• Each atom of silicon is bonded to four oxygen atoms, which are situated at the corners of
the tetrahedron; the silicon atom is positioned at the center.
• Si-O bonds strongly covalent, however, the polyatomic ion is charged and can behave in
an ionic manner.
• Other silicate ion structures formed from 𝑆𝑖𝑂44− tetrahedra

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 • Simple Silicates. See Figure a above. For the various silicate minerals, one, two, or three
of the corner oxygen atoms of the 𝑆𝑖𝑂44− tetrahedra are shared by other tetrahedra to form
some rather complex structures. For example, forsterite (𝑀𝑔2 𝑆𝑖𝑂4 ) has the equivalent of
two 𝑀𝑔2+ ions associated with each tetrahedron in such a way that every 𝑀𝑔2+ ion has
six oxygen nearest neighbors.
𝑀𝑔2+ + 𝑆𝑖𝑂44− → 𝑀𝑔4 (𝑆𝑖𝑂4 )2 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑔2 𝑆𝑖𝑂4
• Layered Silicates. See Figure b to e above. A two-dimensional sheet or layered structure
can also be produced by the sharing of one, two or three oxygen ions in each of the
tetrahedra. The unbonded oxygen atoms has associated net negative charge projecting
out of the plane. One of the most common clay minerals, kaolinite, has a relatively simple
two-layer silicate sheet structure. Kaolinite clay has the formula 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑖2 𝑂5 )(𝑂𝐻)4 in which
the silica tetrahedral layer, represented by (𝑆𝑖2 𝑂5 )2−, is made electrically neutral by
adjacent 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑂𝐻)2+4 layer.
𝐴𝑙2 (𝑂𝐻)2+
4 + (𝑆𝑖2 𝑂5 )
2−
→ (𝐴𝑙2 (𝑂𝐻)4 )2 (𝑆𝑖2 𝑂5 )2 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑖2 𝑂5 )(𝑂𝐻)4

Silica Glasses
• Silica can also be made to exist as a
noncrystalline solid or glass having a high
degree of atomic randomness, which is
characteristic of the liquid; such a material is
called fused silica, or vitreous silica
• As with crystalline silica, the 𝑆𝑖𝑂44−
tetrahedron is the basic unit; beyond this
structure, considerable disorder exists

Carbons

Carbon (sometimes also considered a ceramic) may exist in several polymorphic forms.
Polymorphism describes the ability of a substance to exist as one or more crystalline phases that
have different arrangements of the molecules in the solid state. For example, carbon crystallizes
into two polymorphs: the diamond, which has cubic structure, and graphite, a layered hexagonal
structure.

a. Diamond – metastable carbon polymorph at room temperature

and atmospheric pressure; crystal structure is a variant of the
zinc blende, in which carbon atoms occupy all positions (both
Zn and S). Thus, each carbon bonds to four other carbons, and
these bonds are totally covalent. This is appropriately called
the diamond cubic crystal structure.

Unique characteristics: hardness and high thermal conductivity due to strong chemical
bonds between carbon atoms.

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 b. Graphite – has crystal structure distinctly different from
that of diamond and is also more stable than diamond
at ambient temperature and pressure; composed of
layers of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms; each
carbon atom is bonded to three coplanar neighbor
atoms by strong covalent bonds.

Unique Characteristics: high-temperature chemical

stability, good lubricative properties

c. Fullerenes – exists in discrete molecular form and consists of hollow spherical order
cluster of sixty carbon atoms

Unique Characteristics: electrically insulative, conductive or semiconductive

d. Carbon nanotube – consists of a single sheet of graphite, rolled into a tube, both ends of
which are capped with C60 fullerene hemisphere

Unique Characteristics: extremely strong and stiff, electrically conductive or

semiconductive

Imperfections in Ceramics

Atomic Point Defects

• Vacancy Defect – lattice sites which would be occupied in a perfect crystal, but are
vacant

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 • Interstitial Defect – atoms that occupy a site in the crystal structure at which there is
usually not an atom

• Frenkel Defect - type of point defect where an atom (especially cation) leaves its
original lattice site and occupies an interstitial position on the same crystal

• Schottky Defect - occurs when oppositely charged atoms (cation and anion) leave their
corresponding lattice sites and create a pair of Vacancy Defects

Crystal Defects

• Stoichiometry Defects - defined as a state for ionic compounds wherein there is the
exact ratio of cations to anions as predicted by the chemical formula
• Nonstoichiometry Defects – defined as a state for ionic compounds where there is
deviation on the exact ratio of cations to anions.

COURSE: ECEN55 – MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY: ENGR. RHODONELLE S. DUATIN
Types and Classifications of Ceramics

Glasses
• The two prime assets of glass materials are optical transparency and ease of fabrication
• Most inorganic glasses can be made to transform from a non-crystalline state to one that
is crystalline by the proper high-temperature heat treatment called crystallization.
• The product is fine-grained polycrystalline material called glass-ceramic

Clay Products
• Inexpensive ingredient, found naturally in great abundance, often is used as mined without
any upgrading of quality
• Classified into two categories:
o Structural clay products - include building bricks, tiles, and sewer pipes—
applications in which structural integrity is important
o Whitewares - become white after the high-temperature firing; included are
porcelain, pottery, tableware, china and plumbing fixtures.

Refractories
• Materials that are employed at elevated temperatures and often in reactive environments
o Fireclay refractories – prime ingredients are high-purity fireclays, alumina and silica
mixtures usually containing between 25 and 45 wt% alumina; used principally in
furnace construction
o Silica refractories – also termed as acid refractories; prime ingredient is silica;
well-known for their high temperature load-bearing capacity; used in the arched
roofs of steel- and glass-making furnaces
o Basic refractories – rich in periclase, or magnesia (MgO); especially resistant to
attack by slags containing high concentrations of MgO and CaO and find extensive
use in some steel-making open hearth furnaces
o Special refractories - relatively high-purity oxide materials, many of which may be
produced with very little porosity; relatively expensive; used for electrical
resistance heating elements, as a crucible material, and in internal furnace
components

COURSE: ECEN55 – MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY: ENGR. RHODONELLE S. DUATIN
Abrasives
• Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind, or cut away other material, which necessarily
is softer
• Diamond, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, corundum, and silica sand are the most
common abrasive materials

Cements
• Portland cement – produced by heating a mixture of clay and lime-bearing minerals in a
rotary kiln (process called calcination). The resulting “clinker” is ground into very fine
particles to which a small amount of gypsum is added.
• Inorganic cements – when mixed with water, they form a paste that subsequently sets and
hardens; includes cement, plaster of paris and lime.

Advanced Ceramics
• Many of our modern technologies use and will continue to use advanced ceramics
because of their unique mechanical, chemical, electrical, magnetic, and optical properties
and property combinations
o Piezoelectric ceramics—generate electric fields when mechanical strains (i.e.,
dimensional changes) are imposed.
o Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)—smart systems that consist of
miniaturized mechanical devices integrated with electrical elements on a substrate
(normally silicon).
o Ceramic ball bearings—for some bearing applications, bearing steel balls are
being replaced by Si3N4 balls. Silicon nitride is harder and less dense and has a
higher compressive strength than bearing steels

Fabrications and Processing of Ceramics

COURSE: ECEN55 – MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY: ENGR. RHODONELLE S. DUATIN
Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics
• Pressing - used in the fabrication of relatively thick-walled pieces such as plates and
dishes; glass piece is formed by pressure application in a graphite-coated cast iron mold
having the desired shape; the mold is ordinarily heated to ensure an even surface

• Blowing – formed by mechanical pressing in a mold; inserted into a finishing or blow mold
and forced to conform to the mold contours by pressure created from a blast of air

• Drawing – used to form long glass pieces such as sheet, rod, tubing and fibers, which
have a constant cross section.
• Fiber Forming - formed by drawing the molten glass through many small orifices at the
chamber base

Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products

• Hydroplastic Forming - a plastic and pliable mass is formed into a desired shape by forcing
the mass through a die orifice
• Slipcasting - a slip (suspension of clay and other minerals in water) is poured into a porous
mold. As water is absorbed into the mold, a solid layer is deposited on the inside of the
mold wall
o Drying & Firing - body must be first dried and then fired at an elevated temperature
to reduce porosity and enhance strength

COURSE: ECEN55 – MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY: ENGR. RHODONELLE S. DUATIN
 • Powder Pressing - formed by powder compaction; uniaxial, isostatic, and hot pressing
techniques are possible
• Tape Casting - a thin sheet of ceramic of uniform thickness is formed from a slip that is
spread onto a flat surface using a doctor blade; this tape is subjected to drying and firing
operations

COURSE: ECEN55 – MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY: ENGR. RHODONELLE S. DUATIN