BATTERIES AND OTHER SMALL

SOURCES OF DC ELECTRICITY
BEGIN PRESENTATION

Welcome to the first lecture on the generation of direct current electricity: batteries and other
small sources of DC electricity. Various physical phenomena can be harnessed for the production
of direct current electricity. These include friction, pressure, heat, light, electrochemistry, and
magnetism. Due to the law of conservation of energy, which says that energy cannot be created
or destroyed, none of these processes create energy. Rather, they convert some non-electrical
form of energy into electrical energy.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

 CONDUCTION IN LIQUIDS AND GASSES

Current flow is not limited to solid conductors, such as metal

wires. Recall that an ion is an atom that has a net electrical
charge because it has either lost or gained electrons. When
ions are present in liquids or gasses, a conducting path for
electric current is present. The conduction of electricity in
liquids and gasses plays an important role in some of the
electrical generation processes mentioned in the previous
slide.
For instance, batteries rely on the conduction of electricity
through liquids. In addition, conduction in liquids and gasses
are useful in many other applications besides the generation
of electricity.
For example, conduction in a liquid is necessary for
electroplating, which is the process of coating a metal object
by depositing atoms of another metal. Conduction in a gas
is also of practical importance. The production of light by a
fluorescent lamp is one such example.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 FRICTION - STATIC ELECTRICITY

The law of electrical charges states that opposite charges attract and like
charges repel. Friction can cause electrons to be stripped from an object,
causing that object to become positively charged. Rubbing a glass rod with
silk is a wellknown example of this. If the positively charged object comes
near, but not in contact with, another object with a normal charge, an
electric force is exerted between the two.

Recall from basic electrical theory that this force is known as the
electrostatic force. Static electricity is therefore the separation of positive
and negative charges that can exert forces on other charges. Static means
stationary, and the charges do not move and no current flows unless
electrostatic discharge occurs.

Electrostatic discharge is a sudden flow of current when the charges are

brought close enough together to allow the separated charges to come
together and equalize the charges. This is what happens if you receive a
shock when touching a doorknob after walking across a carpet.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
PRESSURE - PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT

Another method of generating DC electricity is by applying pressure to

certain crystals or ceramics, which causes electrons to be driven out of their shells
in the direction of the force. This is known as the Piezoelectric Effect. If the force
is removed, the current flows in the other direction as the electrons return.

Current only flows while the electrons are moving, so a sustained current would
require sustained bending or twisting motions of the material. Although the
amount of power produced is very small, the piezoelectric effect has many
important applications, such as in motion sensors and accelerometers. A wand
lighter that you might use to light a gas grill uses the piezoelectric effect,
producing a spark when the button applies force to a piezoelectric material.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 HEAT - THERMOELECTRICITY
Some metals give up electrons when heated, while others receive them.
Heating the junction of two dissimilar metals causes electrons to travel from
one metal to the other, creating a voltage. This is called thermoelectricity.

A device operating under this principle is called a thermocouple. The

voltage produced is very small, typically in the millivolt range, but since the
voltage is proportional to the temperature at the junction, thermocouples
are very useful for measuring temperature. Thermocouples can be made
from a variety of metals and are relatively rugged and inexpensive,
constituting the majority of temperature measurement devices utilized in
industrial settings. They can also be used to provide control power to a
circuit. In a furnace for example, a thermocouple is used to hold a gas valve
open as long as the pilot light is detected, closing the valve when the pilot
light is off.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 LIGHT - PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Light can generate electricity as well. Some light-sensitive materials may release an electron when struck by a photon. This
is known as the photoelectric effect.

A photon is a small particle of light consisting of energy but no mass. These light-sensitive materials are packaged into a
voltage-producing cell known as a photocell and are typically made from semiconductors such as silicon and germanium.
When a photon strikes an electron in a photocell, the energy of the photon is given to the electron. The release of these
electrons produces a voltage. Photovoltaic cells, or solar cells, are perhaps the best known application of the photoelectric
effect.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY – BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS

Batteries and fuel cells are sources of DC electricity that operate using the principle of electrochemistry.
Electrochemistry is the process whereby chemicals can be combined with certain metals to form a chemical reaction
that transfers electrons to produce a voltage. A voltaic cell consists of two different metals submerged in conducting
solution known as an electrolyte.

A battery consists of two or more cells. Fuel cells also use electrochemistry to produce electricity, but the materials
that transfer electrons are not consumed in the reaction. Fuel cells require high-purity fuel and a catalyst for the
reaction to occur. Both fuel cells and batteries are areas of active research to improve their designs and capacities as
energy sources.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 BATTERY TERMINOLOGY
Since batteries probably constitute the most important source of
electricity after generators, understanding some of the key terms and concepts or batteries
is important. As already mentioned, a voltaic cell consists of two different metals submerged
in a conducting solution that produces a voltage. The voltage produced depends on the
materials used and may range from 0.8 to 3.6 Volts. 1.5 Volts is a typical voltage for many
types of cells.

A battery consists of several cells connected together, although in common usage battery
is often used to mean a single cell as well. An electrode is the metal or metallic compound
in the battery, one of which has a deficiency of electrons (the positive electrode) and one
of which has a surplus of electrons (the negative electrode). The positive terminal of the
battery is connected to the positive electrode and the negative terminal is connected to the
negative electrode. An anode is the terminal of an electrical device into which conventional
current flows. In a discharging battery that is producing power, the anode is the negative
terminal, since electrons flow to the positive terminal through the connected circuit, and
conventional current flow is opposite to electron flow.

A cathode is the terminal of an electrical device from which conventional current flows out.
In a discharging battery, the cathode is the positive terminal. The conducting solution in
which the electrodes are immersed is known as electrolyte. The electrolyte consists of an
acid, alkaline, or salt solution. If the electrolyte is a liquid, the cell is known as a wet cell. If
the electrolyte is a paste, the cell is known as a dry cell.

Measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte is a means of testing the charge of a
battery. Specific gravity is the ratio of a substance’s density to the density of water, which
has a specific gravity of 1.0. The specific gravity of lead-acid batteries for instance, ranges
from about 1.215 to 1.28. If specific gravity decreases, it indicates less acid and more water
in the solution, which is an indicator of battery discharge. Specific gravity is measured with
an instrument known as a hydrometer.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 MORE BATTERY TERMINOLOGY

Primary cells are cells that are not rechargeable, intended to be

disposed of once discharged. Secondary cells are rechargeable cells. A
cell or battery has an internal resistance, due primarily to the resistance
of the electrolyte between the electrodes.

When the battery is under load, there will be an internal voltage drop
in the battery and the battery terminal voltage will be lower than the
noload voltage. As a cell or battery ages and deteriorates, this internal
resistance increases.

Battery capacity is measured primarily in ampere-hours, which is

a measurement of electric charge, determined by the amperes of
current, multiplied by the time of the flow in hours. One ampere-hour
is defined as one ampere of current flowing for one hour. If a particular
battery can supply 4 amperes of current for 20 hours for instance, it
would be rated at 80 amperehours.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 BATTERY OPERATION

As mentioned, the sources of electricity discussed in this

presentation
convert non-electrical forms of energy into electrical energy.
Batteries are no exception. Batteries convert stored chemical
energy into electrical energy. This conversion takes place
through chemical reactions that occur when a complete circuit is
connected between the negative and positive terminals of the
battery. The chemical reaction that takes place on the negative
anode is known as an oxidation reaction, whereby free electrons
are released. At the same time, positive ions dissolve from
the anode into the electrolyte. This action causes the cathode
to become positively charged. The free electrons from the
anode flow into the cathode through the circuit. The cathode
material accepts these electrons in a chemical reaction known
as reduction. The electrons flowing through the circuit, at the
voltage level provided by the battery, constitute the electric
current that performs work in the circuit.

The example shown here is a zinc-copper battery. The zinc

electrode is the anode and the copper electrode is the cathode.
Note that when charging a rechargeable battery, this process
is reversed, and the anode and cathode switch places, since
electric current is reversed when charging, and flows into the
battery from the charging circuit.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 SERIES AND PARALLEL BATTERIES

When batteries are connected in series, the positive terminal

of one battery will be connected to the negative terminal of
the next battery and so on, since each battery will provide
a voltage rise that will add to the voltage of the preceding
battery. The resulting total voltage is determined by adding
the voltages of all the batteries in series.

Four 1.5 Volt cells in series will total 6 Volts for example. The
current flowing through each battery will be the same. The
ampere-hours of capacity will remain the same number as
that of one single battery.

When batteries are connected in parallel, all of the positive

terminals are connected together and all of the negative
terminals are connected together. Batteries connected in
parallel should all be of the same voltage. The resulting
voltage of the parallel batteries will equal that of one single
battery. However, the total ampere hours of capacity will now
be equal to the sum of all the individual battery capacities,
since each battery can contribute current to the total current.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 TYPES OF BATTERIES – PRIMARY CELLS

Many different types of batteries exist, but only certain

combinations of metals and electrolytes can be used practically,
due to corrosion or other adverse reactions between electrode and
electrolyte. Some of the more common battery types in use are
listed here, categorized as either primary cells or secondary cells.
Recall that primary cells are not rechargeable; secondary cells are
rechargeable.

Commonly-used primary cells include carbon-zinc, alkaline, and

button cells. The carbon-zinc cell is an older and inexpensive
design that uses carbon and zinc electrodes with a paste
electrolyte. Alkaline cells are similar in construction to carbon-zinc,
but use zinc and manganese dioxide as electrodes and an alkaline
electrolyte such as potassium hydroxide. The advantage of an
alkaline cell is much longer life than zinc-carbon, but at a higher
cost.

Button cells are small cells used in watches and other small
electronic devices, so named because of their physical
resemblance to a button. Other names for button cells include
watch batteries or coin cells. Button cells usually use an alkaline
paste as the electrolyte. Although rechargeable button cells
do exist, most are not intended to be recharged and are thus
primary cells. Carbon-zinc, alkaline, and button cells all use paste
electrolytes and can be classified as dry cells.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 TYPES OF BATTERIES – SECONDARY CELLS

Commonly-used secondary cells, or rechargeable cells, include leadacid,

Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Metal Hydride, and Lithium-ion. Lead-acid cells
use lead and lead dioxide plates as electrodes and dilute sulfuric acid as the
electrolyte. Lead-acid batteries are used in automobiles and other mobile
equipment and are also used in energy and industrial facilities for any
batterypowered applications that these sites may have, such as backup power.
Lead-acid batteries are capable of producing large amounts of current in a
short amount of time.

Nickel-cadmium, or Ni-Cad cells use nickel hydroxide and cadmium hydroxide

for the electrodes, with potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte. Nickelmetal
hydride cells are similar to Ni-Cad cells but are more environmentally friendly
because they do not contain the heavy metal cadmium. Nickel-metal hydride
cells also suffer less from memory effect, which is a decreasing ability over time
to hold a full charge when recharging after being only partially discharged.
Nickel-metal hydride cells are becoming cost competitive with Ni-Cad and are
replacing them in many applications. Lithium ion cells use lithium oxide and
carbon electrodes, with lithium ions transferring from the anode to the cathode
through the electrolyte.

They are becoming very popular for use in portable electronics because of
their high energy densities, high voltage output of 3.6 Volts per cell, resistance
to memory effect, and relatively constant voltage output throughout their
discharge cycle. Some disadvantages of lithium-ion batteries include higher
cost, and a tolerance for fewer recharge cycles—around 500 recharges as
compared to around 2000 for Ni-Cad batteries.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 BATTERY HAZARDS

When using or working with batteries, some safety precautions and operational characteristics should be
considered. One hazard with batteries is a shorted cell, which is a direct and unintentional connection
between the positive and negative terminal of the cell. A shorted cell is disabled, diminishing battery
capacity. Secondary cells can also suffer from overcharging. Overcharging with too much current can
damage the electrodes and shorten the life of the battery. A general rule of thumb is that charging
current should be no more than 1/10 the ampere-hour rating. Overcharging can also cause excessive
temperatures that can damage the battery. In lead-acid batteries, overcharging can also cause the
formation of explosive hydrogen gas. When charging batteries, the area should be well-ventilated
and free from sparks or open flames. Battery operating temperature is also important. Ideal operating
temperatures for batteries are generally between 60-80 °F. High temperatures can damage the
battery; excessively low temperatures can freeze the electrolyte if the specific gravity is low. The upper
temperature limit for lead-acid batteries is usually considered to be around 110 °F.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV NEXT
 BATTERY MAINTENANCE
The life-spans of lead-acid batteries such as those used in automobiles
or for critical backup power in industrial facilities can be optimized if proper
operating temperature is maintained. In addition, several important testing
and preventive maintenance procedures can be performed to keep a
battery in goo working order.

A battery’s charge can be checked by using a hydrometer to measure

the specific gravity of the electrolyte, although this is not possible with a
sealed battery. A digital voltmeter can be used to check a battery’s no load
terminal voltage. Note that a battery’s no-load voltage should actually read
somewhat higher than its rated voltage.

For example, a 12 Volt lead-acid battery with a 100% charge should

actually read at least 12.6 Volts. If a battery indicates a good charge
reading, a battery load tester can be used to test its discharge capacity.
Visual inspections should also be performed to check electrolyte levels (if
visible), to check for cracked, bulging, or leaking cases, broken or loose
connections, or other signs of damage. Since the backup power provided
by batteries in industrial facilities is so critical, regular maintenance on
these batteries is an important function of the electrical department at such
facilities.

Above all, remember that safety is the most important consideration

when working with electricity. Remember that voltmeters are designed to
connect in parallel to a voltage source, but ammeters are not, so be sure
that a digital multimeter is on the proper voltage setting before checking
battery voltage. Also remember that battery systems present voltage
hazards, possible explosive gas generation, and contain acids that can
cause chemical burns. When working with batteries, always follow the
manufacturer’s recommendations, take the appropriate safety precautions,
and wear the appropriate PPE.

NATIONAL ENERGY CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

PREV