CHAPTER THREE

Wave properties of particles

Diffraction, property of wave motion, in which waves spread and bends as they pass
through small openings or around barriers. Diffraction is more pronounced when the
opening, or aperture, or the barrier is similar in size to or smaller than the wavelength of
the incoming wave

3.1 De Broglie waves

It is known from interference and diffraction experiments that electromagnetic
radiation behaves like a wave.
In chapter 2 it was shown that particle characteristics had to be assigned in order to
explain certain experimental observations such as the photoelectric effect and
Compton scattering.
Hence electromagnetic radiation exhibits a wave-particle duality; in certain
circumstances it behaves like a wave, while in other situations it acts like a particle.
Louis de Broglie postulated that because photons have both wave and particle
characteristics, perhaps all forms of matter have both properties.
According to de Broglie, electrons, just like light, have a dual particle–wave nature.
He further postulated that a material body will have a wavelength given by
3.1
 The wavelength calculated from Eq. 3.1 is called the de Broglie wavelength of the
moving particle.

Example: (a)Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for an electron (me= 9.11 x 10-31 kg)
moving at 1.00 x 107 m/s. (Ans =7.27 x 10-11 m)
(b) A rock of mass 50 g is thrown with a speed of 40 m/s. What is its de Broglie
wavelength? (Ans = 3.3 x 10-34 m)

3.2 The Experimental & probability Interpretation of De Broglie Waves

Because of their regular arrangement of atoms it was suggested that crystals might be
used as diffraction grating for X-rays. These X-rays have about 1 x 10 -10 m in
wavelength, the same order of size as interatomic spacing in typical crystal.
The first experiments to observe electron diffraction, predicted from de Broglie’s
hypothesis, were performed by C.J Davisson and L.H Germer (figure 3.1).

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 They directed a beam of 54 eV electrons at a single crystal of nickel, whose
interatomic spacing is 2.15 x 10-10m.
It was found that there were pronounced peak in the electron intensity at a scattering
angle of 500 where no such large fraction is expected without diffraction effects.
Their results showed conclusively the wave nature of electrons and confirmed the de
Broglie relationship p = h/λ.

Figure 3.1 Davisson–Germer experiment: electrons strike the crystal’s surface at an angle ;
the detector, symmetrically located from the electron source,
Constructive interference takes place only between those scattered rays that are
parallel and whose paths differ by exactly , and so on. That is, the path
difference must be nλ, where n is an integer or mathematically,
nλ = 2d sin 3.2
 For Ni crystal, we have d = 0.091 nm, since D = 0.215 nm.
Since only one maximum is seen at = 500 for a mono-energetic beam of electrons
of kinetic energy 54 eV, and since 2 + = and hence sin = cos ( ⁄ ) then
from eq 3.2 the wavelength associated with the scattered electrons
= = 0.165 nm
Now, let us look for the numerical value of λ that results from de Broglie’s relation.
Since the kinetic energy of the electrons is K = 54 eV, and since the momentum is p =
√ with mec2 = 0.511 MeV (the rest mass energy of the electron) and ħc 197.33
eV nm, we can show that the de Broglie wavelength is
λ= =0.167 nm,
√ √
which is in excellent agreement with the experimental value

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 In water wave, the quantity that varies periodically is the height of water surface. In
sound waves, it is pressure. In light waves, electric and magnetic fields vary. What is it
varies in the case of matter waves?

The quantity which oscillate with the de Broglie wavelength λ=h/mv associated with
matter waves is called the wave function, symbol Ψ(the Greek letter psi).
The value of the wave function associated with moving body at particular point x, y,
z in space at time t is related to the likelihood of finding the body there at the time.
In order to reconcile the wave and particle pictures of matter we must give up the
idea of that the location of a single material particle can be specified exactly.
Instead, we can talk only of the probability of finding a particle at a particular
location at a particular time.
The probability of experimentally finding the body described by the wave function Ψ
at the point x, y, z at the time t is proportional to the value of | Ψ|2 there at t.

3.3 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

It states that measured values cannot be assigned to the position and the momentum
of a particle simultaneously with unlimited precision.
 In terms of =h/2 (called “h-bar”), the principle tells us

𝑥 ∙ 𝑝𝑥 ≥ /

𝑦 ∙ 𝑝𝑦 ≥ /2 (Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle). 3.2

𝑧 ∙ 𝑝𝑧 ≥ /2

Here x and px represent the intrinsic uncertainties in the measurements of the x

components of and, with parallel meanings for the y and z terms.
Even with the best measuring instruments, each product of a position uncertainty and
a momentum uncertainty in Eq. 3-2 will be greater than, never less.

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  The narrower its wave group, the
more precisely a particles position
can be specified.
 However, the wavelength of the
waves in a narrow packet is not
well defined there are not enough
waves to measure λ accurately.

Here as we can see a wide wave group

has clearly defined wave length so the
momentum will be precise quantity.
 But where is the particle located?
The width of the group is now for
us to be able to say exactly where
is at given time.

Assume that an electron is moving along an x axis and that you measure its speed to be 2.05 x
106 m/s, which can be known with a precision of 0.50%. What is the minimum uncertainty (as
allowed by the uncertainty principle in quantum theory) with which you can simultaneously
measure the position of the electron along the x axis?
Ans : 𝒙 1.13 x 10-8 m ≈ 11 nm,

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3.1 VELOCITY OF de BROGLIE WAVES

 Since the de Broglie waves are associated with a moving particle, one can expect
that the de Broglie wave travels with the same velocity as the particle velocity.
Even though the guess is reasonable, in actual this is not correct. So with what
velocity do the de Broglie waves travel?

Let V p ,  and  be the velocity, the wave length and frequency of the de Broglie waves
respectively. Let he de Broglie waves travel in the +x-axis.

i.e. kx   t = constant,

out of which we get

dx 
Vp  = = 
dt 

 V p   3.3

From eq. (3.1) we have,

h

p

 From the Special theory of relativity, the relativistic momentum is expressed as,

p   m0V

 and the total relativistic energy as,

E   m0 c 2 (

where m 0 is the rest mass of a particle

Besides, we have E  h

From the above eqs., the velocity of the de Broglie wave becomes,

c2
Vp 
v

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