1 What is GIS?

Write your own definition of GIS and consider why GIS can be difficult to
define.
There are lot of definitions for the term „Geographic Information Systems“, each developed from a
different perspective or disciplinary origin. In general, they can be split in two groups: those with a technological
perspective and those with an organizational perspective. The common theme is obviously spatial – that is to
say, refenced to the earth’s surface. Tomlinson says it is ‘common ground’ between information processing and
fields using spatial analysis techniques (very general). Burroughs says it is a ‘toolbox’ for collection, storing,
retrieving, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world (but how these tools linked together?).
NCGIA says it is a ‘dbms’ for spatial data, but also adds the concept of process – capture, store, analyze and
display. Cowen adds (1) decision support and (2) integration of spatial data in a problem-solving environment.
Intuitive description would be: 1) a map with a database behind it; 2) a virtual representation of the real
world and its infrastructure; 3) a consistent “as-built” of the real world, natural and manmade
AND
which is 1) queried to support on-going operations; 2) summarized to support strategic decision making
and policy formulation; 3) analyzed to support scientific inquiry.
2 What type of questions could GIS help environmental managers address?
 Where particular features are located;
 What geographical patterns exist;
 Where have changes occurred over a given period;
 Where do certain conditions apply;
 What will the spatial implications be if an organisation takes certain action.
3 Component of GIS, Applications of GIS
The most important part of a GIS infrastructure are its users (experts, operators, computer staff). Each
user/organization will require a GIS with emphasis on a specific set of functions. Moreover, GIS technology in an
organization is of limited value without people knowing how to apply it to real world problems.
Data (locational, temporal, attribute) is the foundation of GIS applications. Every GIS system should be
able to absorb data in a variety of formats, not just in the native format of the particular GIS. Geographic data
can be collected in-house, compiled to custom specifications and requirements, or occasionally purchased from
a commercial data provider.
GIS operates only effectively if it is properly integrated into the entire business strategy and operation
(SPATIAL ANALYSIS, STATISTICS). Besides necessary investments in hardware and software, also the (re-)training
of personnel to utilize the new technology is imperative.
Software is needed to run GIS. GIS software provides the functions and tools necessary to store, analyze,
retrieve and display geographic information.
Hardware is the computer system on which a GIS operates. GIS hardware is like any other computer
hardware with some extra components. Today, GIS software runs on a wide range of hardware types, from
centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations.
Applications: Forestry had been among the first users of GIS. In the beginning just inventory of forest.
Now GIS is used for all areas of management. Utility companies maintain huge networks of cables, wires, and so
forth. They need to know „what” happens „where“. GIS registers all those activities, keeps
records up-to-date, etc. In Local and State governments information is generally tied to an address. Tasks are
development and maintenance of infrastructure. Analysis on the effects of land use changes is a common
operation. Multiusage of information is needed. Retailing is generally restricted to a trade area. Possible analysis
are comparison of store performance, investigation of shopping patterns, determination of new locations.
Applications in the insurance industry are: 1) Risk analysis (estimation of flood damage, determination of seismic
risk); 2) Target marketing; 3) Territory planning.
 4 GIS main advantages,GIS as decision supporting
 Manage & organize vast amounts of geospatial data
 Rapid updating, info. dispersal
 VERIFIABLE methods
 Modeling, hypothesis-testing,
 PREDICTION
 Automate & customize map production
Often the strength of GIS as a decision support tool is reduced to its visual capabilities. It is true that
presenting solutions in graphic form as a map accelerates the process of understanding. But decisions have to
be made during the whole analysis process. Several phases of decision-making can be distinguished:
The first phase (intelligence phase) involves searching or scanning the environment for conditions to be
changed. This requires human expertise and maybe pre-studies in order to e.g. convince politicians or others to
finance the whole study.
The second phase (design phase) struggles with inventing, developing, and analyzing a set of possible
alternatives for the problem identified in the intelligence phase. This makes a fundamental GIS knowledge
necessary to judge several approaches to the problem.
The last phase (choice phase) involves selecting a particular decision alternative from those available.
The choice may be an easy one if all necessary evaluation criteria have been already implemented in the analysis
and one alternative stands out to be the best. Nevertheless, there are some relevant criteria which can not be
expressed in numbers, e.g. political intensions. Unfortunately decisions in such an environment are often
surrounded by „uncertainty“.
However, GIS can be regarded as a „reasoning tool“ which reveals the pros and cons leading to a specific
decision. Thus, Decision-finding is a structured process from fact to judgment.
5 GNSS, Triangulation, GPS network
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) refers to a constellation of satellites providing signals from
space that transmit positioning and timing data to GNSS receivers. The receivers then use this data to determine
location. GNSS provides global coverage.
There are multiple Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS): GPS (USA, global), GLONASS (Russia,
global), after 2020: BieDou (China, global), Galileo (Europe, global), India, France, and Japan (developing
regional systems).
GNSS satellites include almanac and ephemeris data in the signals they transmit. Almanac data are
coarse orbital parameters for all GPS satellites. Communicated to your GPS so you can track satellites.
Ephemeris data are very precise orbital and clock correction for each particular GPS satellite—necessary for
precise positioning.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S.-owned utility that provides users with positioning,
navigation, and timing (PNT) services. This system consists of three segments: the space segment, the control
segment, and the user segment. The U.S. Space Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control
segments. The space segment consists of a nominal constellation of 24 operating satellites that transmit one-
way signals that give the current GPS satellite position and time. The control segment consists of worldwide
monitor and control stations that maintain the satellites in their proper orbits through occasional command
maneuvers and adjust the satellite clocks. It tracks the GPS satellites, uploads updated navigational data, and
maintains health and status of the satellite constellation. The user segment consists of the GPS receiver
equipment, which receives the signals from the GPS satellites and uses the transmitted information to calculate
the user's three-dimensional position and time.

6 Galileo, GLONASS
Galileo is Europe’s own global navigation satellite system, providing a highly accurate, guaranteed global
positioning service under civilian control. Currently providing Initial Services, Galileo is interoperable with GPS
and Glonass. By offering dual frequencies as standard, Galileo is set to deliver real-time positioning accuracy
down to the metre range.
Two Galileo Control Centres (GCCs) have been implemented on European ground to provide for the
control of the satellites and to perform the navigation mission management. The data provided by a global
network of Galileo Sensor Stations (GSSs) are sent to the Galileo Control Centres through a redundant
communications network. The GCCs use the data from the Sensor Stations to compute the integrity information
and to synchronise the time signal of all satellites with the ground station clocks. The exchange of the data
between the Control Centres and the satellites is performed through up-link stations.
As a further feature, Galileo is providing a global Search and Rescue (SAR) function, based on the
operational Cospas-Sarsat system. Satellites are therefore equipped with a transponder, which is able to
transfer the distress signals from the user transmitters to regional rescue co-ordination centres, which will then
initiate the rescue operation.
At the same time, the system will send a response signal to the user, informing him that his situation has
been detected and that help is on the way. This latter feature is new and is considered a major upgrade
compared to the existing system, which does not provide user feedback.
GLObal NAvigation System (GLONASS) is a navigation system owned by the Russian Federation
Government and used to provide PNT services to an unlimited number of air, marine, land and space users on a
continuous worldwide basis at any point on the Earth’s surface and the near-Earth space regardless of
meteorological conditions.
The radionavigation field is generated by the aggregate of signals-in space (SIS) delivered by the
navigation space vehicles (SV) of the GLONASS orbital constellation (OC) within the service volume. At any point
of this service volume, a user with the navigation receiver exploiting one-way ranging techniques can determine
his state vector (position, velocity vector components as related to the assumed coordinate system (CS), and
timing offsets to the user’s time scale defined by his receiver’s clock). CSA provides the positioning, navigation,
and timing accuracy available to any GLONASS OS user without restrictions continuously and worldwide.
7 Main technical parameters of the GNSS rover
Simple GPS receivers use code-phase to determine locations to an accuracy of 3–6 meters.
Essentially code-phase is bigger chunks of signal. High-precision receivers use the carrier phase of the
signal. You can think of this as being able to line up smaller chucks of code between the satellite and
the receiver. This leads to smaller errors and more precise locations. Dual-frequency receivers can
“tune in” to the satellite signal at more than one frequency. You can think of this as listening to more
than one radio station at the same time. In the case of GPS, this can allow for reduction in error from
the ionosphere delays.
• Stable monuments
• Multiple stations
• Sophisticated processing
• Collecting lots of data
• Using the carrier phase
 • Dual-frequency receivers
• High-precision orbital information (ephemeris)
 with several years of data can determine velocities to 1–2 mm/year.
8 RTK, EGNOS, WAAS
Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) is a technique used to enhance the precision of position data derived from
satellite-based positioning systems.

The European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) is Europe's regional satellite-based
augmentation system (SBAS) that is used to improve the performance of global navigation satellite systems
(GNSSs), such as GPS and Galileo. EGNOS uses GNSS measurements taken by accurately located reference
stations deployed across Europe. All measured GNSS errors are transferred to a central computing center,
where differential corrections and integrity messages are calculated. These calculations are then broadcast over
the covered area using geostationary satellites that serve as an overlay, to the original GNSS message. As a
result, EGNOS improves the accuracy and reliability of GNSS positioning information, while also providing a
crucial integrity message regarding the continuity and availability of a signal. In addition, EGNOS also transmits
an extremely accurate universal time signal.
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is a new augmentation to the United States Department of
Defense’s (DoD) Global Positioning System (GPS) that is designed to enhance the integrity and accuracy of the
basic GPS capability. The WAAS uses geo-stationary satellites to receive data measured from many ground
stations, and it sends information to GPS users for position correction. Since WAAS satellites are of the geo-
stationary type, the Doppler frequency caused by their motion is very small. Thus, the signal transmitted by the
WAAS can be used to calibrate the sampling frequency in a GPS receiver.
9 Explain the following terms and phrases: 1 Spatial data. 2 Attribute data. 3 Spatial
referencing. 4 Spatial entities
1 Data or information that identifies the geographic location of features and boundaries on Earth
2 Gives information about non-spatial characteristics, for example details of temperature, wind speed or
direction (characteristics of spatial data)
3 Can be used to describe position. For example, if the latitude and longitude of an object are known,
the relative position of other objects and the proximity to features of interest can be deduced
4 To work in a GIS environment, real world observations (objects or events that can be recorded in 2D or
3D space) need to be reduced to spatial entities. Can be simplified into three basic spatial entity types: points,
lines, polygons
10 Explain the difference between data and information.
 „Information is the fish in the data ocean”. The terms data and information are often interchanged,
although there is an important difference between them. „Data“ are records, representing facts. Data in its raw
and uninterpreted form does not offer meaning, only measurements or facts. Data can exist in the forms of
linguistic expressions (e.g. name, age, address), symbolic expressions (e.g. traffic signs), mathematical
expressions (e.g. E = mc2), signals (e.g. electromagnetic waves), and so on. Hence, data is a collection of
attributes (numeric, alphanumeric, figures, pictures) about features (things, events, activities).
„Information“ implies meaning of multiple data. It can be regarded as the organization of data such that
it is valuable for analysis, evaluation, and decision making.
A critical question concerns the value and the usage of „data“ and „information“. Although data are
ingredients of information, not all data produce useful information. If data are not properly collected and
organized, they will be a burden rather than an asset to an information user. Often data being useful
information for one person may not be useful to another person.
11 Vector model and topology (make a figure)
The vector model represents spatial data in a way that is reminiscent of the mapping process. The
linking thing are the graphic elements. As a map, the vector method displays spatial features with help of points,
lines, and areas that depict size and shape.
The vector method can be viewed as a gradual process of data construction by associating points as a
single set of coordinates, lines as connected sequences of coordinates pairs, and areas as chain of
interconnected lines whose first and last coordinate points are the same. Thus, with three graphical elements all
spatial objects will be abstracted. Due to the fact that the position of points are stored as cartesian coordinates,
the vector model works well with azimuths, distances, and points.
Furthermore, the GIS needs to know which points comprise which lines and which lines comprise which
areas. A line feature may be an entity in itself (e.g. a river) but may also be part of an area (e.g. house outline). A
key functionality of vector based GIS data storage is the recording of the relationship between each of the
entities in a database. This gives the database a built in intelligence that enables us to ask "what lies to the north
of area X ?" or "If I drive in a northerly direction along road Y, what soil type is on my left ?". This intelligence is
gained through the use of a topological data structure.
Clearly defined relationships (topology) between points, lines, and areas define spatial objects in GIS as
nodes, arcs, and polygons. Nodes are found at the beginning and end of every arc and polygon. Based upon
these nodes, arcs are defined. In the vector model, an arc consists of two or more coordinate pairs. Now,
polygons are formed by arcs. Trace around an area in a consistent direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise),
record the affected arcs and your result will be a defined polygon. If an arc has to be followed in its reverse
orientation to make the tracing, it is assigned a negative sign in the polygon file. One and the same arc can occur
twice in a polygon file, if it is shared by neighboring polygons.

Sources of vector data are e.g. digitized maps, heads-up digitized remote imagery, and data of field
survey.
12 Raster model and compression form
Unlike the vector model which uses points, lines and areas for abstraction, a raster model applies a
regular grid of cells to display, locate, and store data. The study area is divided into cells in a specific sequence,
generally row by row starting at the top left corner. A cell as „dividing“ unit represents a limited, but defined,
amount of the earth‘s surface. In most cases in GIS, a single value is assigned to each cell. Together, these values
create a layer. Values are source- and operation-depending. A common GIS data source are images of a remote
sensing satellite. Such an image consists of several raster, their values range from 0 to 255 „0“ and „1“ as
indicator for presence or absence of features. Nominal values can be represented by almost every code (letter,
numbers, etc.).
The data is not compressed as long as a unique value for each cell in every row and column is stored (full
raster encoding). Compression forms:
• Run-length encoding: adjacent cells of one row are grouped, for example, 11133323333 results
in (3 1)(3 3)(1 2)(4 3)
• Value-point encoding: same cell values of a square are grouped (cells are assigned position
numbers starting in the upper left corner, preceding from left to right and from the top to bottom)
• Quadtrees: gradually subdivision of a raster (grid cell) leads to homogenous quadrants
Sources of raster data are e.g. satellite data, scanned aerial photography, digital orthophotography,
scanned maps and documents.
13 Compare raster with vector model

14 Projected coordinate systems (records locations in linear units, usually meters)

A projected coordinate system is a flat, two-dimensional representation of the Earth. It is based on a
sphere or spheroid geographic coordinate system, but it uses linear units of measure for coordinates, so that
calculations of distance and area are easily done in terms of those same units. Map Projection - the
transformation of a curved earth to a flat map. Coordinate systems - (x,y,z), z is defined geometrically. Types of
projections: Conic (Albers Equal Area, Lambert Conformal Conic) - good for East-West land areas; Cylindrical
(Transverse Mercator) - good for North-South land areas; Azimuthal (Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area) - good for
global views. A particular projection is defined by a datum, a projection type and a set of projection parameters.
15 Geographical coordinate systems
A geographic coordinate system (GCS) uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations on
the earth. A GCS is often incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is only one part of a GCS. A GCS includes an
angular unit of measure, a prime meridian, and a datum (based on a spheroid).
A point is referenced by its longitude and latitude values. Longitude and latitude are angles measured
from the earth's center to a point on the earth's surface. The angles often are measured in degrees (or in grads).
Latitude (f) and Longitude (l) defined using an ellipsoid, an ellipse rotated about an axis , whereas elevation (z)
defined using geoid, a surface of constant gravitational potential.
16 Datum, Geoid, WGS-84
Latitude (f) and Longitude (l) defined using an ellipsoid, an ellipse rotated about an axis. Mean Sea Level
is a surface of constant gravitational potential called the Geoid. Elevation (z) defined using geoid, a surface of
constant gravitational potential. Earth datums define standard values of the ellipsoid and geoid.
 World Geodetic System (WGS) – is a global system for defining latitude and longitude on earth
independently of tectonic movement (military). World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84) is reference frame for
Global Positioning Systems.
Selecting a specific reference ellipsoid to use for a specific area and orienting it to the landscape, defines
what is known in Geodesy as a datum (note that the plural of datum in geodesy is datums, not data!). A datum
thus defines an ellipsoid (itself defined by the major and minor semi-axes), an initial location, an initial azimuth
(a reference direction to define the direction of north), and the distance between the geoid and the ellipsoid at
the initial location. Establishing a datum is the task of geodetic surveyors, and is done in the context of the
establishment of national or international geodetic control survey networks. A datum is thus intended to
establish a permanent reference surface, although recent advances in survey technology have led many nations
to redefine their current datums.
17 Equidistant projections
Equidistant maps preserve the distances between certain points. Scale is not maintained correctly by
any projection throughout an entire map. Most Equidistant projections have one or more lines in which the
length of the line on a map is the same length (at map scale) as the same line on the globe, regardless of
whether it is a great or small circle, or straight or curved. Such distances are said to be true. For example, in the
Sinusoidal projection, the equator and all parallels are their true lengths. In other Equidistant projections, the
equator and all meridians are true.
18 Equal area projections
A projection could maintain the area of a feature but alter its shape. Equal area projections preserve the
area of displayed features. To do this, the other properties—shape, angle, and scale—are distorted. In Equal
area projections, the meridians and parallels may not intersect at right angles.
19 Coordinate system transformation in ArcMAP
The dataset's extent and coordinate values will not change. The dataset must already be using the
coordinate system. To change a dataset's coordinate system, including its extent and values, use the Project or
Project Raster tools.
20 GIS main functions in Terrset
The IDRISI GIS Analysis and the IDRISI Image Processing menus contain the majority of modules. The GIS
Analysis menu is two to four levels deep, with its primary organization at level two. The first four menu entries
at this second level represent the core of GIS analysis: Database Query, Mathematical Operators, Distance
Operators and Context Operators. The others represent major analytical areas: Statistics, Decision Support,
Change and Time Series Analysis, and Surface Analysis.
21 Project function of TERRSET
TerrSet can work with files from any folder (including network folders). However, it can often be a
nuisance to continually specify folder and sub-folder names, particularly when a specific project typically
accesses data in a limited set of folders. To simplify matters, TerrSet allows you to specify these folders as
belonging to a specific Project. When the paths to these folders are designated in a Project, TerrSet finds data
very easily and with minimal user intervention. Within any Project, the most important folder is the Working
Folder. Users may choose to store all of the data for a project in the Working Folder (particularly for smaller
projects). However, for larger projects, or projects requiring libraries of carefully organized and protected data
sets, additional Resource Folders can also be added to the Project. A Project can contain any number of
Resource Folders.
22 The main import/export data types of Terrset
The first step of any GIS project is getting your data into a format that can be used by your software.
Terrset uses specific file format called IDRISI file format for files used within the TerrSet software. Any files you
wish to use in terrset must be converted to this format. Terrset offers an extensive set of import/export
routines. The TIFF file format is very common. To import it, use GEOTIFF module in File - Import-
Government/Data Provider Formats - GEOTIFF/TIFF (or type it into the search bar). Terrset also offers
conversion utilities for netCDF/HDF, ENVI, Arc Shapefile (.shp), ArcRaster formats among others. Most important
modules are fairly similar to the GEOTIFF module. Generic raster can import different types of raster data in BIL
(Band interleaved by Line), BIP (Band interleaved by Pixel), BSQ (Band Sequential) formats. GDAL conversion
utility can be used to convert nearly any raster image (select/type input/output files, select format for output
file).
23 Display launcher, Contour, DEM menu in TERRSET

DISPLAY Launcher is used to open a new display window. It begins the map composition process, and is
always the first operation required to create a new map display. DISPLAY Launcher can be accessed from its
toolbar icon (shown above) or by choosing it from the Display menu. Doing so opens a dialog box with options
to display a raster layer, a vector layer, or an existing map composition. When you select a raster or a vector
layer, TerrSet uses a set of decision rules based on the values in the layer to suggest an appropriate palette or
symbol file. You may change this selection. You can also specify if the layer should be displayed with a direct
relationship between numeric values and symbol codes, or should be autoscaled (see below). In the case of a
map composition, you will only be required to specify its name, since all display parameters are stored in the
map file.
CONTOUR creates contour lines from an input raster data set. It also provides raster grid of elevation
values as input to CONTOUR in order to produce lines showing contours of terrain. After specifying input raster
image and writing output file name, we can change the input boxes to specify a minimum contour value and a
maximum with a contour interval. You can leave the default values for the other two options. Enter a descriptive
title to be recorded in the documentation of the output file. Note that the status bar shows the progress of this
module as it creates the contours in two passes—an initial pass to create the basic contours and a second pass
to generalize them.
Now that we have selected the layer to be displayed, we need to choose an appropriate palette (a
sequence of colors used in rendering the raster image). In most cases, you will use one of the standard palettes
represented by radio buttons. However, you will learn later that it is possible to create a virtually infinite
number of palettes. In this instance, the IDRISI Default Quantitative palette is selected by default and is the
palette we wish to use.
This image is a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of an area in Spain, where each cellvalue means a height
at this location.
24 Function of Ortho menu
Produces a 3-D orthographic perspective plot of surface data with optional draping of a second color
image. 3D-Visualization with ORTHO can be a valuable completion to 2-dimensional bird's-eye view. View
direction and view angle can be adjusted between 0 - 90°. Together with the module which calculates rotated
images it can produce looks from/to nearly any direction. It allows for one byte image to be draped over the
surface (normally but not compelling a DEM) and the choice of a palette.
We can find the ORTHO option from the DISPLAY submenu under the File menu. If we use a 24-bit
image, we will not need to specify a palette. A 24-bit image is a special form of raster image that contains the
data for three independent color channels which are assigned to the red, green and blue primaries of the
display system. Each of these three channels is represented by 256 levels, leading to over 16 million displayable
colors. Keep the default settings for all other parameters except for the output resolution. Choose one level
below your display system's resolution. For example, if your system displays images at 1024 x 768, choose 800 x
600.
25 Function of Symbol workshop
 The map layers in a composition are rendered by means of symbol and palette files. While a set of
symbol files is included with TerrSet, commonly you will want to develop specific symbol files to optimize the
impact of the information presented on your final maps. Symbol and palette files are created and modified using
Symbol Workshop, available under the Display menu and through its toolbar icon. In all, five types of files can be
created: point symbol files, line symbol files, polygon symbol files, text symbol files and palette files. Symbol files
record the graphic renditions for up to 256 symbols, indexed 0-255. For example, a text symbol file might
indicate that features assigned symbol index 5 are to have their names rendered using bold, italic, 10-point
Times New Roman text in a red color. From the Symbol Workshop File menu, you can choose to open an existing
file or create a new one. If you choose the latter, you will need to indicate the symbol type: point, line, polygon,
text, or palette. The 256 symbols are then arrayed in a 16 x 16 grid. To change a symbol, simply click within its
symbol grid cell.
A very important feature of Symbol Workshop is the ability to copy or blend attributes. As a companion
to the blend option, Symbol Workshop also provides a copy function. With both the blend and copy functions, it
is possible to set options that will cause them only to copy or blend specific attributes (such as color or size). To
get a sense of how the symbols will look on a particular background, you may also set a background color for the
Symbol Workshop display. Finally, the autoscaling range of a symbol file may be specified or altered in Symbol
Workshop. All symbol files contain definitions for 256 symbols. However, by altering the autoscale range, it is
possible to create sequences of more limited range. For example, to set up a palette with 8 colors, set the
autoscale min and max to be 0 and 7 respectively. Then define these 8 colors.
26 Function of Map composition
Composer is one of the most important tools you will use in the construction of map compositions. It
allows you to add and remove layers, change their hierarchical position and symbolization, and ultimately save
and print map compositions. By default, Composer will always be displayed on the right-side of the desktop
when any map window is open. Here, we can click check marks to toggle the visibility of layers, also drag the
layers up and down to change visual priority and blend raster layers. In Layer properties we can add/remove
layer, save composition, print, change composition properties. Auto-arrange automatically arranges legends,
titles, etc.
Note that when multiple layers are displayed in a composition, some interesting options are provided.
To create color composites dynamically from three bands in the composition, use the color composite buttons
to designate the red, green and blue bands of the composites. Image layers can also be blended with layers
below them (a great option for adding hill shading) or be displayed with transparency. Transparency makes
palette color 0 transparent – a tremendously useful procedure whenever you wish to remove the background
from the visual display.
Finally, make special note of the stretch buttons provided at the bottom of the Composer dialog. The
left-most optimizes the display of raster layers by using a linear stretch with saturation (if you are unfamiliar
with the concept, it is described in the next chapter). The middle stretch button does the same, but stretches
the image symmetrically around 0. This is designed for images with both positive and negative values. The right-
most stretch button does the same as the left-most button, but calculates the stretch based only on the pixels
currently in view. This can be especially valuable with newer remotely sensed images with very high radiometric
resolution.
27 Google Earth Pro (GEP) functions
Key Features include: See global changes with decades of historic imagery. If you've ever wondered how
your neighborhood has changed throughout time, Google Earth now gives you access to the past. With a simple
click, check out suburban sprawl, melting ice caps, coastal erosion, and more. Dive beneath the surface of the
ocean. In the new ocean layer, you can plunge all the way to the floor of the sea, view exclusive content from
partners like BBC and National Geographic, and explore 3D shipwrecks like the Titanic. Track and share your
paths with others. Take placemarks a step further and record a free-form tour in Google Earth Pro. Simply turn
on the touring feature, press record, and see the world. You can even add a soundtrack or narration to
personalize the journey.
Google Earth Pro can be used to view historical and recent imagery of places of interest, including
remote areas to assist with environmental planning and rehabilitation planning including; Viewing historical
imagery to assess areas of ground disturbance and changes in vegetation cover, Viewing changes in landscape
(landforms, cleared areas, revegetated areas, etc.), Viewing proximity of sensitive areas to proposed
activities/projects. Google Earth pro also has tools that can be used to easily measure distances and areas of
places of interest, e.g., wetlands, Export data to Google maps for local syncing to make finding monitoring site in
the field on a tablet, and Importing your data or link to website data sets to create maps.
28 Point, line, poligon layer digitization and attributive data in Google Earth Pro
Point. Use Satellite or Merge view, or digitize on a KML/KMZ fle. Navigate to the location you want.
Since the placement will be in the center of the screen, you might put the location near the screen center. Pick
"Add placemark" button on toolbar. Drag Placemark Icon to correct location. You want the point of the push pin
on the location. Enter Name for location. Any other changes will be reflected in Google Earth, but not in
MICRODEM. Hit "OK" when done. Attributive data include longitude and latitude.
Line. Icon on GE toolbar starts digitizing. Use either stream or point mode digitizing. When done, save
the line by right clicking on it in the Google Earth table of contents. Use KML format. To convert to a shapefile,
use DNR GPS. You can also digitize as sequential points, and then convert them to a line or area shapefile in
MICRODEM. Attributive data include length.
Polygon. 1) Run Google Earth.
2) Find the map where your spray areas are.
3) Zoom in or out for best view of map.
4) From the Add menu of Google Earth, select Polygon. The New Polygon dialog box appears and cursor
changes to a square icon. You can resize the dialog box to get more space for the map. Make sure your polygon
is shown clearly.
5) Enter the properties of polygon. For polygon or area name, the first 3 characters must be "spr'
followed by a desired name. Do not use a space or special characters.
6) For Description, you can enter the same as polygon name.
7) As default, the polygon will be painted white on the map. If desired, you can select the color of
polygon, but this is not necessary.
8) Now move the square cursor to the polygon. Click around the outline of polygon to add points. You
should click the points in clockwise order.
9) When done, click the button OK on the dialog box to save the polygon.
10) The new polygon is shown in the Temporary folder in the left panel.
11) To save the polygon to a file, highlight the polygon name.
12) Select File > Save > Save Place As.
13) Enter the KMZ file name. Then click Save. Note that you can also select to save the polygon to a KML
file. With the KML file, it's easy to check the content of file if there is a problem. Attributive data include
perimeter and area.
29 Map cartographic tools in Google Earth Pro
Once a logic has been established for referring to earth locations and a set of measurements has been
made, a means of storing and analyzing those positions is required. Traditionally, maps have been the preferred
medium for both storage and analysis, while today that format has been supplemented by digital storage and
analysis. Both, however, share a common trait—they are most commonly flat! Just as flat maps are a more
manageable medium than map globes, plane coordinates are a more workable medium than spherical
(ellipsoidal) coordinates for digital applications. As a result, surveyed locations are commonly transformed to a
plane grid referencing system before use. Map cartographic tools in Google Earth pro consider most of the
modern tools which are as under:
- Aerial Photoraphy: able to reach unpressive heights and controlled by the hand held remote
- Sensors: detect the events, changes and physical characteristics of the given area by transforming, the
stimul into the electrical signal (e.g. 3D laser based aerial mapping). These contribute to the design and creation
of the high fidelity maps.
- GPS - digital cartography has enabled the ubiquity of GPS systems. Users can employ GPS to track
everyday trends like traffic, mark coordinates for landmarks, chart a path from one location to another, and find
their own location within a map.
- Satellites: satellites enable consistent, large-scale updates of Earth’s surface. Satellites have increased
the speed and range at which mappable information can be collected. By continually capturing footage of the
Earth’s surface, satellites have enabled the creation of thousands, if not millions, of maps - used in
agriculture, utilities, forestry, earth sciences, global change, and regional planning.
30 Data export/import between Google Earth Pro and Terrset
TerrSet uses open file formats that are specially optimized for display and analysis. External formats
need to be converted using the various import routines in the File|Import menu. These are very quick and
support most common formats. Similarly TerrSet provides Export utilities for moving data to other systems.
1 Open GEP and search for a location of interest. From Tools menu select Options and make sure that
Decimal degrees is selected, click Apply.
2 Click on Add a placemark button, a dialog window New Placemark opens. You can open Notepad
beforehand or prepare a paper. Drag the placemark to the left bottom corner. Copy-paste the latitude and
longitude numbers to the Notepad, these are minimum y and x coordinates. Then drag the placemark to the
right top corner. Also copy-paste the latitude and longitude numbers down, these are maximum y and x
coordinates.
3 Click File – Save – Save image and select a path to your project folder and a name for the image. Save
it as a jpg file.
3 Open TerrSet. Select File – Import – Desktop Publishing formats – JPGIDRIS. New dialog window
opens. For Input file select the saved image and give name for the output image. Click Output reference
information. In the opened dialog window copy-paste from the Notepad minimum and maximum x and y
coordinates. Confirm that reference system is LATLONG and reference units is Degrees, unit distance is 1. Click
OK.
31 Distance analysis, Buffer module in TERRSET
Distance operators calculate distances from some feature or set of features. In a raster environment,
they produce a resultant image where every pixel is assigned a value representing its distance from the nearest
feature. There are many different concepts of distance that may be modeled. Euclidean, or straight-line,
distance is what we are most familiar with, and it is the type of distance analysis we will use in this exercise. In
IDRISI, Euclidean distances are calculated with the module DISTANCE. A related module, BUFFER, creates buffer
zones (an area that falls within a certain distance of a particular feature or set of features, e.g. 250 m away from
reservoirs) around features using the Euclidean distance concept. Both require as input an image in which the
target features from which distances should be calculated have non-zero values and every other pixel has the
value 0. The output images from DISTANCE and BUFFER are quite different. DISTANCE calculates a new image in
which each cell value is the shortest distance from that cell to the nearest feature. The result is a distance
surface (a spatially continuous representation of distance). BUFFER, on the other hand, produces a categorical,
rather than continuous, image. The user sets the values to be assigned to three output classes: target features,
areas within the buffer zone and areas outside the buffer zone. BUFFER is preferred over DISTANCE when a
categorical buffer zone image is the desired result. However, in other cases, a continuous distance image is
required.
 32 Surface- slope, aspects, hillshade in TERRSET
The first criterion listed is that suitable sites must be on land with slopes less than 2.5 degrees. Our goal
in this first step then is to produce a Boolean image for areas meeting this criterion. We will call the image
SLOPEBOOL. SLOPEBOOL should be a Boolean image in which all pixels with slopes less than 2.5 degrees have
the value 1 and all other pixels have the value 0. To create this image, we will need to have an image of all slope
values. As an image of all slopes does not exist in the database, it must be calculated. The module SURFACE
calculates a slope image from an elevation image. The elevation image we have is RELIEF. Once the image of
slopes is in our database, we can use a reclassification to isolate only those slopes that meet our criterion. In the
case of raster digital elevation models (such as the RELIEF image), the slope at any cell may be determined by
comparing its height to that of each of its neighbors. In IDRISI, this is done with the module SURFACE. Similarly,
SURFACE may be used to determine the direction that a slope is facing (known as the aspect) and the way
sunlight would illuminate the surface at that point given a particular sun position (known as analytical
hillshading).
33 Function of Boolean layer and Group module
Context operators determine the new value of a pixel based on the values of the surrounding pixels. The
GROUP module, is a context operator since the group identifier assigned to any pixel depends upon the values
of the surrounding pixels. In this exercise, we will become familiar with another context operator, SURFACE,
which may be used to calculate slopes from an elevation image. The slope value assigned to each pixel depends
upon the elevation of that pixel and its four nearest neighbors. A suitability map shows the degree of suitability
for a particular purpose at any location. It is most often produced from multiple images, since most suitability
problems incorporate multiple criteria. In this exercise, Boolean images will be combined using the OVERLAY
module to yield a final map that shows the sites that meet all the specified criteria. This type of Boolean multi-
criteria evaluation is often referred to as constraint mapping, since each criterion is defined by a Boolean image
indicating areas that are either suitable for use (value 1) or constrained from use (value 0).
34 Visualization, Map composition in TERRSET
Data visualization is one of the most important steps to consider during any GIS project. The way in
which your data is visualized will directly impact your audience's interpretation of the final product. Visualization
elements include coloring, map extent, labels, boundaries, interactivity, 3D models, and more. In TerrSet the
map layers, and the display system allows us to explore them with the most important analytical tool at our
disposal—the visual system. With Composer and DISPLAY LAUNCHER we have limitless possibilities for
visualizing our data. The three-dimensional (i.e., orthographic) perspective offered through ORTHO can produce
extremely dramatic displays and is a powerful tool for visual analysis.
The files in TerrSet project folders define two forms of geospatial data – layers and map compositions.
Layers represent elementary geographic themes such as elevation, roads, cities and so on. Map compositions
contain one or more layers along with ancilliary information such as titles, legends, a scale bar, etc. TerrSet
recognizes six basic layer types – raster layers (images), point vector layers, line vector layers, polygon vector
layers, text vector layers and photo vector layers. Each layer is actually stored as a pair of files – a data file and
an associated metadata file that contains vital information about the layer such as it georeferencing system and
bounding coordinates. Map compositions are begun as soon as a single map layer is displayed. Additional layers
can then be added to the composition along with ancilliary information.
35 Function of Cost distance and Friction layer
While DISTANCE produces values measured in units such as meters or kilometers, COST calculates
distance in terms of some measure of cost, and the resulting values are known as cost distances. Similar to
DISTANCE, COST requires a feature image as the input from which cost distances are calculated. However, unlike
DISTANCE, COST also requires a friction surface that indicates the relative cost of moving through each cell. The
resulting continuous image is known as a cost distance surface. These friction values are always calculated
relative to some fixed base amount which is given a value of 1. For example, if our only friction was snow depth,
we could assign areas with no snow a value of 1 (i.e., the base cost) and areas with snow cover values greater
than 1. If we know that it costs twice as much to traverse areas with snow 0,2 m to 0.8m deep than it does to
cross bare ground, we would assign cells with snow depths in that range a friction value of 2. Frictions are
specified as real numbers to allow fractional values, and they can have values between 0 and 1.0 x 1037.
Frictions are rarely specified with values less than 1 (the base cost) because a friction value less than 1 actually
represents an acceleration or force that acts to aid movement. Cost distance analysis requires two layers of
information, a layer containing the features from which to calculate cost distances and a friction surface. Both
must be in raster format.
36 Function of Vector/Raster conversation
When creating a raster version of a vector layer in IDRISI, it is first necessary to create a blank raster
image that has the desired spatial characteristics such as min/max X and Y values and numbers of rows and
columns. This blank image is then "updated" with the information of the vector file. The module INITIAL is used
to create the blank raster image.
Note that there are two options for how the parameters of the output image will be defined. The
default, copy from an existing file, requires we link an input raster image that already has the desired spatial
characteristics of the file we wish to create (the attribute values stored in the image are ignored).
We wish to create an image that matches the characteristics of WORCWEST. Also note that INITIAL
requires an initial value and data type. Leave the default initial value of 0 and change the data type to byte. Add
the vector file NEWPLANT to the model, then add the module POINTRAS to the model and right-click on it.
POINTRAS requires two inputs—first the vector point file, then the raster image to be updated. The default
operation type, to record the ID of the point, is correct. Close module parameters. Link the vector layer
NEWPLANT then the raster layer BLANK to the POINTRAS module. Right-click on the output image of POINTRAS
and rename this to be NEWPLANT. NEWPLANT will then automatically display. If you have difficulty seeing the
single pixel that represents the plant location, you may wish to use the interactive Zoom Window tool to enlarge
the portion of the image that contains the plant. You may also add the vector layer NEWPLANT, window into
that location, then make the vector layer invisible by clicking in its check box in Composer. You should see a
single raster pixel with the value one representing the new manufacturing plant.
37 Description of Data model of short pathway (figure accepted)
In order to calculate the least cost pathway from the manufacturing plant to the existing power line, we
will need to supply the module PATHWAY with the cost distance surface created and a raster representation of
the existing power line. Place the module LINERAS in the model and right-click on it. It requires the vector file
(POWERLINE) and an input raster image to be updated. Then it is ready to calculate the least-cost pathway
linking the existing power line and the new plant. This module works by choosing the least-cost alternative each
time it moves from one pixel to the next. Since the cost surface was calculated using the manufacturing plant as
the feature image, the lower costs occur nearer the plant. PATHWAY, therefore, will begin with cells along the
power line (POWERLINE) and then continue choosing the least cost alternative until it connects with the lowest
point on the cost distance surface, the manufacturing plant. (This is analogous to water running down a slope,
always flowing into the next cell with the lowest elevation). Note that it requires the cost surface image be
linked first, then the target image. Link COSTDISTANCE, then POWERLINE to PATHWAY Right-click on the output
image and rename it NEWLINE. Save and run the model.
 38 Land use change of the world and impact on erosion risk
For much of human history, most of the world’s land was wilderness: forests, grasslands and shrubbery
dominated its landscapes. Over the last few centuries, this has changed dramatically: wild habitats have been
squeezed out by turning it into agricultural land.
If we rewind 1000 years, it is estimated that only 4 million square kilometers – less than 4% of the
world’s ice-free and non-barren land area was used for farming. In the visualization we see the breakdown of
global land area today. 10% of the world is covered by glaciers, and a further 19% is barren land – deserts, dry
salt flats, beaches, sand dunes, and exposed rocks. This leaves what we call ‘habitable land’. Half of all habitable
land is used for agriculture.
This leaves only 37% for forests; 11% as shrubs and grasslands; 1% as freshwater coverage; and the
remaining 1% – a much smaller share than many suspect – is built-up urban area which includes cities, towns,
villages, roads and other human infrastructure.
There is also a highly unequal distribution of land use between livestock and crops for human
consumption. If we combine pastures used for grazing with land used to grow crops for animal feed, livestock
accounts for 77% of global farming land. While livestock takes up most of the world’s agricultural land it only
produces 18% of the world’s calories and 37% of total protein.
The amount of land required to produce food has wide variations depending on the product–this is
especially true when differentiating crops and animal products. In the chart here we have plotted the average
land required (sometimes termed the “land footprint”) to produce one gram of protein across a range of food
types.
At the bottom of the scale, we see that cereal crops typically have a small land impact per unit of
protein (although such protein is often lacking in some essential amino acids). At the upper end of the spectrum,
we find meat products, with the land required for beef or mutton up to 100 times larger than cereals. However,
it’s important to note the differences in land required across the meat products: poultry and pork have a land
footprint 8-10 times lower than that of beef. This means individuals can make notable reductions in the
environmental impact of their diets simply by substituting lower-impact meat products for beef or mutton.
39 Main data sources of global erosion
USLE estimates average annual soil loss by sheet and rill erosion on those portions of landscape profiles
where erosion, but not deposition, is occurring. It does not estimate deposition like that at the toe of concave
slopes, and it does not estimate sediment yield at a downstream location. Also, it does not include ephemeral
gully erosion.
The USLE is an empirically based equation, derived from a large mass of field data, especially erosion
plots and rainfall simulator experiments, and computes sheet and rill erosion as follows: A=RKLSCP where A is
computed soil loss, R is the rainfall-runoff erosivity factor, K is a soil erodibility factor, L is the slope length
factor, S is the slope steepness factor, C is a cover management factor, and P is a supporting practices factor.
 A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a representation of the bare ground (bare earth) topographic surface
of the Earth excluding trees, buildings, and any other surface objects. NASA only needed 11 days to capture
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) 30-meter digital elevation model. Back in February 2000, the Space
Shuttle Endeavour launched with the SRTM payload.
Using two radar antennas and a single pass, it collected sufficient data to generate a digital elevation
model using a technique known as interferometric synthetic aperture radar (inSAR). C-Band penetrated canopy
cover to the ground better but SRTM still struggled in sloping regions with foreshortening, layover and shadow.
In late 2014, the United States government released the highest resolution SRTM DEM to the public. This 1-arc
second global digital elevation model has a spatial resolution of about 30 meters. Also, it covers most of the
world with an absolute vertical height accuracy of less than 16m.
40 RUSLE2 (RKLSCP)
RUSLE2 estimates rates of rill and interrill soil erosion caused by rainfall and its associated overland
flow. Detachment (separation of soil particles from the soil mass) by surface runoff erodes small channels (rills)
across the hillslope. Erosion that occurs in these channels is called rill erosion. Erosion on the areas between the
rills, the interrill areas, is called interrill erosion. Detachment on interrill areas is by the impact of raindrops and
waterdrops falling from vegetation. The detached particles (sediment) produced on interrill areas is transported
laterally by thin flow to the rill areas where surface runoff transports the sediment downslope to concentrated
flow areas (channels).
RUSLE2 includes several components. One major RUSLE2 component is the computer program that
solves the many mathematical equations used by RUSLE2. A very important part of the RUSLE2 computer
program is its interface that connects the user to RUSLE2. Another major component of RUSLE2 is its database,
which is a large collection of input data values. The user selects entries from the database to describe site-
specific field conditions. The other major component of RUSLE2 is the mathematical equations, scientific
knowledge, and technical judgment on which RUSLE2 is scientifically based.
The four major factors of climate, soil, topography, and landuse determine rates of rill and interrill
erosion. A RUSLE2 user applies RUSLE2 to a specific site by describing field conditions at the site for these four
factors. RUSLE2 uses this field description to compute erosion estimates.
41 EPIC, SWAT models
Environmental Policy Integrated Climate (EPIC) model is a cropping systems model that was developed
to estimate soil productivity as affected by erosion. EPIC simulates approximately eighty crops with one crop
growth model using unique parameter values for each crop. It predicts effects of management decisions on soil,
water, nutrient and pesticide movements, and their combined impact on soil loss, water quality, and crop yields
for areas with homogeneous soils and management. Examples: effects of different nutrient treatments; soil
erosion losses from wind erosion; climate change and drought impact on crop yield and soil erosion.
The Soil & Water Assessment Tool is a small watershed to river basin-scale model used to simulate the
quality and quantity of surface and ground water and predict the environmental impact of land use, land
management practices, and climate change. SWAT is widely used in assessing soil erosion prevention and
control, non-point source pollution control and regional management in watersheds.
 42 TIN model, Constrained Triangulated Irregular Networks
A TIN is an irregular array of elevation points assembled as a network of edges forming planar, space-
filling, non-overlapping triangles. Significant landform features can be included in the original irregular elevation
points as breaklines which can be set to influence or constrain the interpolation of sample elevation points to
reflect such features as ridges, rivers or lakes, etc. (Kumler 1994; Douglas, 1986; Stocks and Heywood, 1994).
An advantage of this elevation model is its variable resolution that allows for few, large triangles in
subdued landscapes and numerous, small triangles in high relief landscapes. In order to take full advantage of
variable resolution, only significant data points are extracted from the data set prior to the interpolation.
The inclusion of significant landforms as breaklines and breakpoints allows for placement of these
landforms as precisely as the original sampling protocol and the storage precision of the model allow. Each point
is stored explicitly as x, y and z values.
TIN are based on a Delaunay triangulation or constrained Delaunay. TINs are likely to contain fewer
long, skinny triangles, which are undesirable for surface analysis. Delaunay triangulation for a given set P of
discrete points in a plane is a triangulation DT(P) such that no point in P is inside the circumcircle of any triangle
in DT(P). Delaunay triangulations maximize the minimum angle of all the angles of the triangles in the
triangulation; they tend to avoid sliver triangles.
Micro relief is a key factor of the water management on the flat Hungarian Plains. The coinstrained TIN
method enables the spatial evaluation of depression or micro relief locations, where spatial sampling density is
low, or completely missing. TIN and 3D model are highly effective in evaluating processes dynamic in time and
space, like soils’ water management.
43 Primary topographic attribute computed by Terrian Analysis
Primary attributes are calculated directly from the elevation data. Primary attributes include slope,
aspect, plan and profile curvature, flow-path length, upslope contributing area, catchment area, altitude,
elevation percentile and others. Aspect defines the cardinal direction (0 – 360 degrees) a surface is facing (uses -
fire management, soil moisture, evapotranspiration, flora and fauna distribution and abundance). Slope
describes overland and subsurface flow velocity and runoff rate. It quantifies the maximum rate of change in
value from each cell to its neighbors (use - overland and subsurface flow, velocity and runoff rate, precipitation,
vegetation, geomorphology, soil water content, land capability class). Plan Curvature: - measured perpendicular
to the direction of descent;
- describes converging/diverging flow;
- contour curvature (Use: Converging/diverging flow; Soil water content; Soil characteristic).
Profile Curvature: - measured in the direction of maximum descent or aspect direction;
- measure of flow acceleration, erosion/deposition rate (use: flow acceleration;
erosion/deposition rate; geomorphology).
 Catchment area (flow accumulation) - measure of surface or shallow subsurface runoff at a given point
on the landscape. Combines the effects of upslope surface drainage area and convergence of runoff (use: runoff
volume; steady-state runoff rate; soil characteristics; soil-water content; geomorphology).
44 Secondary topographic attributes computed by Terrian Analysis
The secondary attributes (topographic wetness, stream-power, radiation, temperature indices) that are
computed from two or more primary attributes are important because they offer an opportunity to describe
pattern as a function of process. Those attributes that quantify the role played by topography in redistributing
water in the landscape and in modifying the amount of solar radiation received at the surface have important
hydrological, geomorphological, and ecological consequences in many landscapes. These attributes may affect
soil characteristics (because the pedogenesis of the soil catena is affected by the way water moves through the
environment in many landscapes), distribution and abundance of soil water, susceptibility of landscapes to
erosion by water, and the distribution and abundance of flora and fauna.
45 The Terrain Flow Information Model
The terrain flow information model for deriving channels, watersheds, and flow related terrain
information.
• Pit removal: Pits (single cells significantly lower than neighbouring elevations) are an impediment to
accurate modelling of neighbourhood shape and are especially problematic for hydrologic modelling. Pits can be
removed by assessing neighbouring elevations, setting a threshold for acceptable differences and filling the pit
by averaging the neighbouring elevations.
• Flow direction field derivation: Flow direction calculates the direction water will flow using slope from
neighboring cells.
• Flow Accumulation: Area draining into a grid cell. Flow Accumulation > 10 Cell Threshold. Stream
Network for 10 cell Threshold Drainage Area. The area draining each grid cell includes the grid cell itself.
• Channels and Watersheds: Watershed mapped as all grid cells that drain to an outlet. Streams
mapped as grid cells with flow accumulation greater than a threshold.
• Raster to Vector Connection: Each stream link has a unique identifying number. Raster Zones and
Vector Polygons are one to one connected through DEM GridCode and Catchment GridID respesctively. For
every stream segment, there is a corresponding catchment. Catchments are a tessellation of the landscape that
are delineated through a set of physical rules.
Raw DEM  Pit Removal (filling)  Flow Field  Channels, Watersheds, Flow Related Terrain
Information (Watersheds are the most basic hydrologic landscape elements).
46 Surface curvature - TERRSET
Surface curvature measures for each pixel the maximum rate of change of a curve fit through the pixel
along the direction of aspect (also known as profile curvature) or the direction orthogonal to aspect (also known
as planimetric curvature).
The former is referred to as maximum curvature and the latter as minimum curvature in the dialog box.
The procedure is performed on either a DEM or on a DEM that has been transformed, filtered, and back-
transformed with FOURIER transformation.
The curvature calculations are based on polynomial surface fitting of each 3 x 3 pixel area. Eigenvalues
are solved from the second directional derivative of the partial quartic equation for a central pixel of a 3 x 3
neighborhood. The eigenvalues hold the information for the magnitude of rate of change of a tangent line along
the mathematically described curve in the aspect direction of the pixel and in the direction orthogonal to aspect.
Mathematical fitting assumes the mathematical shape of every pixel can be described by information
held by its immediate neighbors. Most DEMs, though, are not so well behaved mathematically. Because each
pixel holds information for shape processes acting at multiple scales, FOURIER analysis is used to reduce the
variability (or surface contrasts) of the DEM to better match the CURVATURE operator to dominant surface
trends recognized visually in an area that extends beyond the local 3 x 3 pixel neighborhood.
 The output of TOPOSHAPE is a surface shape classification consisting of 11 possible topographic
features: 1 peak, 2 ridge, 3 saddle, 4 flat, 5 ravine, 6 pit, 7 convex hillside, 8 saddle hillside, 9 slope hillside, 10
concave hillside, 11 inflection hillside, 15 unclassified.
Any pixels not assigned to these classes are assigned to the "unclassified" class. The procedure is
performed on either a DEM or on a DEM that has been transformed, filtered, and back-transformed with
FOURIER modules.
Frequency filtering is an improvement over the drawbacks of spatial domain mean filtering. In frequency
filtering, short spatial wavelengths are defined as noise while longer spatial wavelengths are defined as
representing real features in the data.
Pelligrini (1995) notes that filtering in the frequency domain can remove outliers without modifying the
entire surface. The magnitude and frequency of the error can be visualized in the frequency domain.
47 Model functions of different Surfer maps

48 Main data types of Surfer

Surfer uses four basic file types: data, grid, base map, and Surfer .SRFfiles. Data files (*.dat) are used to
produce grid files, post data points on a map, or generate a residuals log. These files are generally referred to as
XYZ data files or data files throughout the help. Data can be read from various file types. Most data files contain
numeric XY location coordinates and optional Z values. The Z values contain the variable to be modeled, such as
elevation, concentration, rainfall, or similar types of values. XYZ data files contain raw data that Surfer interprets
to produce a grid file. To create a grid file, you must start with an XYZ data file. XYZ data files are organized in
column and row format. Surfer requires the X, Y, and Z data to be in three separate columns.
49 Grid model, Fault, Breaklines
Gridding is the process of taking irregularly or regularly spaced XYZ data and generating a regularly
spaced grid of Z values at each grid node by interpolating or extrapolating the data values. The term "irregularly
spaced" means that the distance between data points varies in the X or Y direction, or both. Irregularly spaced
data often has many holes where data are missing.
Gridding fills in these holes by extrapolating or interpolating Z values at those locations where no data
exists. The gridding method determines the mathematical algorithms used to compute the Z value at each grid
node.
 Each method results in a different representation of your data. It is advantageous to test each method
with a typical data set to determine the gridding method that provides you with the most satisfying
interpretation of your data.
When your XYZ data is regularly spaced, meaning the distance between data points does not change in
the X and Y directions, you may produce a grid file that uses the Z values directly and does not interpolate values
for the grid nodes.
Breaklines are used when gridding to show discontinuity in the grid.
A breakline is a three-dimensional boundary file that defines a line with X, Y, and Z values at each
vertex.
When the gridding algorithm sees a breakline, it calculates the Z value of the nearest point along the
breakline, and uses that value in combination with nearby data points to calculate the grid node value.
Surfer uses linear interpolation to determine the values between breakline vertices when gridding. If a
point lies on the breakline, the value of the breakline takes precedence over the point. Breakline applications is
no barrier and include defining streamlines, ridges, and other breaks in the slope.
The breaklines options are displayed in the Breaklines section of the Grid Data Advanced Options dialog
when the selected interpolation method to select the blanking (*.BLN) file BLN containing the breaklines.
Faults are used to show discontinuity when gridding, similar to breaklines. A fault is a two-dimensional
boundary file defining a line acting as a barrier to information flow when gridding. When gridding a data set,
data on one side of a fault is not directly used when calculating grid node values on the other side of the fault.
50 Komponent of variogram, Exact and Smoothing Interpolators

Gridding methods included with Surfer are divided into two general categories: exact interpolators and
smoothing interpolators.
Exact interpolators honor data points exactly when the point coincides with the grid node being
interpolated. In other words, a coincident point carries a weight of essentially 1.0 and all other data points carry
a weight of essentially zero. Even when using exact interpolators, it is possible that the grid file does not honor
specific data points if the data points do not exactly coincide with the grid nodes. Refer to Weighted
Averaging for more information on weights assigned during interpolation.
To increase the likelihood that your data are honored, you can increase the number of grid nodes in the
X and Y direction. This increases the chance that grid nodes coincide with data points, thereby increasing the
chance that the data values are applied directly to the grid file.
 The following methods are exact interpolators:
• Inverse Distance to a Power when you do not specify a smoothing factor
• Kriging when you do not specify a nugget effect
• Nearest Neighbor under all circumstances
• Radial Basis Function when you do not specify an R2 value
• Modified Shepard's Method when you do not specify a smoothing factor
• Triangulation with Linear Interpolation
• Natural Neighbor
Smoothing interpolators or smoothing factors can be employed during gridding when you do not have
strict confidence in the repeatability of your data measurements. This type of interpolation reduces the effects
of small-scale variability between neighboring data points. Smoothing interpolators do not assign weights of 1.0
to any single point, even when a point is exactly coincident with the grid node. When smoothing is used,
weighting factors are assigned so the map is smoother. In the extreme case, all data points are given equal
weight and the surface becomes a horizontal plane at the average for all data in the data file.
The following methods are smoothing interpolators:
• Inverse Distance to a Power when you specify a smoothing factor
• Kriging when you specify an error nugget effect
• Polynomial Regression
• Radial Basis Function when you specify an R2 value
• Modified Shepard's Method when you specify a smoothing factor
• Local Polynomial
• Moving Average