MIX DESIGN OF CONCRETE USING 100%

RECYCLED AGGREGATES TO BE USED IN

THE MANUFACTURING OF PAVERS AND
MASONRY BLOCKS
____________________________________

by

Engr. Zaib-Un-Nisa
2019-MS-CES-06

Research Supervisor:
Prof. Dr. Rashid Hameed

2022
_______________________________________

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
 Mix Design of Concrete using 100% Recycled Aggregates to be used in the

Manufacturing of Pavers and Masonry Blocks

by

ENGR. ZAIB-UN-NISA

A THESIS

presented to the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science

in

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

APPROVED BY:

Prof. Dr. Rashid Hameed Dr. Wajahat Hussain Mirza

Civil Engineering Department GM, Imporient Chemical Limited

Prof. Dr. Khalid Farooq Prof. Dr. Habib-ur-Rehman

Chairman of the Department Dean of Faculty

March 2022

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, LAHORE
  2022

Engr. Zaib-un-Nisa

All Rights Reserved

Any part of this thesis cannot be copied, reproduced or published without the written

approval of the Scholar.

 iv

ABSTRACT

Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials by the construction
industry all over the world. Demolition of old concrete structures results in production
of large amount of waste concrete which needs to be managed for the protection of
our environment. One of the ways being suggested to reuse the waste concrete in
construction industry is by producing aggregates from the waste concrete through
crushing. Both the coarse and fine aggregates are separated and then used to partly or
fully replace the fresh natural aggregates to make new concrete termed as Recycled
Aggregate Concrete (RAC) for different applications.
The present research study deals with the mix design of 100% recycled aggregate
concrete to be used in the manufacturing of concrete masonry units of minimum 15
MPa compressive strength and concrete paving blocks of minimum of 35 MPa
compressive strength through compression casting technique. For this purpose,
laboratory tested samples of strength ranging from 3000 psi (21 MPa) to 4000 psi (28
MPa) were crushed to obtain both fine and coarse recycled aggregates. The
parameters which have been studied, included fine to coarse aggregate ratio, cement
content, water content and casting pressure. For RAC mixes made for pavers, use of
super-plasticizer was also investigated. Samples containing 100% Natural Aggregates
(NA) were also casted through compression casting technique. Moreover, specimens
containing 100% Recycled Aggregates (RA) were also prepared using convention
casting technique (compaction through vibration). All the casted specimens were
cured under similar conditions and tested at the age of 28 days. The tests performed
were related to determination of hardened density, compressive strength, modulus of
elasticity, ultrasonic pulse velocity and sorptivity of concrete.
The findings of this experimental confirmed the outcomes of previous work on RAC
that presence of recycled aggregates in concrete exhibits detrimental effect on its
hardened density, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and ultrasonic pulse
velocity of concrete. However, preparation of RAC using Compression Casting
Technique (CCT) method showed positive impact on the above noted properties of
recycled aggregate concrete. The sorptivity of recycled aggregate concrete was found
to be more than natural aggregate concrete due to the higher porosity of recycled
aggregates.
Based on the results, it has been concluded that it is possible to develop concrete
mixes having 100% recycled aggregates through CCT which have the potential to be
used for the manufacturing of concrete masonry units with a minimum compressive
strength of 15 MPa and concrete paving blocks with a minimum compressive strength
of 35 MPa.
Future research work in continuation of present work will focus on the manufacturing
of bricks and pavers using RAC mixes proposed and their comprehensive testing to
evaluate their mechanical and durability performance as per Pakistan and international
standards.
Keywords: Concrete; recycled aggregates; casting technique; masonry units (bricks);
pavers; sustainability, RAC, CCT
 v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First and foremost, praises and thanks to Almighty ALLAH for providing me this

opportunity and abilities to proceed in a successful way. I want to thank the Department

of Civil Engineering of “University of Engineering & Technology Lahore” for giving me

such a golden opportunity to commence this project in the first instance. I want to express

my deep and sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr. Rashid Hameed, Professor at Department of

Civil Engineering, UET Lahore, who provided me an insight and expertise that greatly

assisted this research project. His advices proved to be a landmark effort towards the

success of this research. I would like to recognize the efforts of the lab assistants who

helped me in completion of this project. I want to acknowledge everyone, who had

supported me to complete my research thesis either directly or indirectly. I would also

like to acknowledge the financial support provided by HEC through NRPU project No.

9764 and the technical support provided by Imporient Chemicals Lahore. Lastly, I would

like to thank my project advisor once again for sharing his pearls of wisdom in the writing

of this thesis because without his guidance this would not have been possible with so

much ease and splendor.

 vi

STATEMENT OF ORGINALITY

It is stated that the research work presented in this thesis consists of my own

ideas and research work. The contributions and ideas from others have been duly

acknowledged and cited in the dissertation. This complete thesis is written by me.

[Engr. Zaib-un-Nisa]
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................................v

STATEMENT OF ORGINALITY .................................................................................... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. vii

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xvi

NOMENCLATURE ....................................................................................................... xvii

1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1

1.1. GENERAL .......................................................................................................... 1

1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................. 3

1.3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF STUDY ................................... 4

1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH ............................................................ 5

1.5. ORGANIZATION OF THESIS ......................................................................... 6

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 8

2.1. HASSAN ET AL., (2021)................................................................................... 8

2.2. BHAT, (2021) ..................................................................................................... 9

2.3. MATAR ET AL., (2020) .................................................................................. 10

2.4. RASHID ET AL., (2020) .................................................................................. 11

2.5. XINYI ET AL., (2019) ..................................................................................... 12

2.6. AKKADATH ET AL., (2019) .......................................................................... 14

2.7. YUVA ET AL., (2016) ..................................................................................... 15

2.8. ESHMAIEL ET AL., (2015) ............................................................................ 16

 viii

2.9. PEDRO ET AL., (2014) ................................................................................... 17

2.10. LÓPEZ ET AL., (2013) .................................................................................. 18

2.11. PADMINI ET AL., (2009) ............................................................................. 19

2.12. FINDINGS OF LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................... 20

3. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 22

3.1. PHASES OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK......................................................... 22

3.1.1. Phase I- for 15MPa Concrete Mix Design ............................................. 23

3.1.2. Phase II - for 15MPa Concrete Mix Design (RAs in SSD Condition) ... 23

3.1.3. Phase III - for 35MPa Concrete Mix Design .......................................... 23

3.2. MATERIALS.................................................................................................... 24

3.2.1. Cement.................................................................................................... 24

3.2.2. Recycled Aggregates (RA) ..................................................................... 24

3.2.3. Natural Aggregates (NA) ....................................................................... 28

3.2.4. SBR-Latex .............................................................................................. 29

3.2.5. Super-plasticizer ..................................................................................... 30

3.3. CONCRETE MIXES ........................................................................................ 30

3.3.1. Mixes for Phase – 1 ................................................................................ 31

3.3.2. Mixes for Phase II .................................................................................. 34

3.3.3. Phase III.................................................................................................. 35

3.4. MIX PREPARATION ...................................................................................... 38

3.5. SAMPLE PREPARATION .............................................................................. 39

3.5.1. Compression Casting Technique (CCT) ................................................ 39

3.5.2. Conventional Casting Technique (Compaction by Vibration) ............... 42

3.6. CURING METHOD ......................................................................................... 44

3.7. TESTING METHODS ..................................................................................... 44

 ix

3.7.1. Density Test ............................................................................................ 45

3.7.2. Compressive Strength Test ..................................................................... 45

3.7.3. Test for Modulus of Elasticity ................................................................ 45

3.7.4. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test ............................................................... 47

3.7.5. Sorptivity Test ........................................................................................ 48

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................ 51

4.1. PHASE-I ........................................................................................................... 51

4.1.1. Density.................................................................................................... 51

4.1.2. Compressive Strength............................................................................. 54

4.1.3. Relationship between Density and Compressive Strength ..................... 56

4.2. PHASE-II .......................................................................................................... 58

4.2.1. Density.................................................................................................... 58

4.2.2. Compressive Strength............................................................................. 60

4.2.3. Relationship between Compressive Strength and Density ..................... 63

4.2.4. Modulus of Elasticity, E ......................................................................... 66

4.2.5. Relation between Compressive Strength and Modulus of Elasticity ..... 68

4.2.6. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) ........................................................... 71

4.2.7. Relationship between Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity and Compressive

Strength .................................................................................................. 74

4.2.8. Relationship between Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity and Modulus of

Elasticity ................................................................................................ 75

4.2.9. Sorptivity Testing ................................................................................... 76

4.3. PHASE-III FOR 35 MPA TARGET COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH .............. 95

4.3.1. Hardened Density ................................................................................... 96

4.3.2. Effect of Aspect Ratio on Compressive Strength ................................... 97

 x

4.3.3. Compressive Strength............................................................................. 99

4.3.4. Modulus of Elasticity ........................................................................... 100

4.3.5. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity ..................................................................... 101

4.3.6. Sorptivity of Concrete .......................................................................... 102

4.4. COST ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 104

4.4.1. Cost Analysis of Bricks ........................................................................ 104

4.4.2. Cost Analysis for Pavers ...................................................................... 105

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................. 107

5.1. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................ 107

5.1.1. Objective No. 1..................................................................................... 107

5.1.2. Objective No. 2..................................................................................... 109

5.1.3. Objective No. 3..................................................................................... 110

5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................ 111

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................112

VITA ................................................................................................................................116
 xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

Figure 2.1: Variation of compressive strength & % replacement of RA [Hassan, 2021]... 9

Figure 2.2: Effect of parent concrete on the compressive strength of RAC [Bhat,

2021] .......................................................................................................................... 10

Figure 2.3: Compressive strength of concrete with and without admixtures [Matar,

2020] .......................................................................................................................... 11

Figure 2.4: 28 days compressive strength of RAC [Rashid, 2020] .................................. 12

Figure 2.5: Relationship between Replacement level and compressive strength of

RAC [Xinyi, 2019] ..................................................................................................... 13

Figure 2.6: Relationship between Replacement level and Water Absorption of RAC

[Xinyi, 2019] .............................................................................................................. 14

Figure 2.7: Compressive strength of HC under different conditions [Yuva, 2016] ......... 15

Figure 2.8: Volumetric Changes after compaction [Yuva, 2016] ..................................... 16

Figure 2.9: Compressive strength of RAC having different strength of parent concrete

[Pedro, 2014] .............................................................................................................. 17

Figure 2.10: Elasticity Modulus of RAC having different strength of parent concrete

[Pedro, 2014] .............................................................................................................. 18

Figure 2.11: Water absorption of kerbs at different replacement ratios of RA [López,

2013] .......................................................................................................................... 19

Figure 3.1: Process of production of recycled concrete aggregates.................................. 25

Figure 3.2: Gradation curve of recycled coarse aggregates .............................................. 27

Figure 3.3: Gradation curve of recycled fine aggregates .................................................. 27

Figure 3.4: Gradation curve of Natural Coarse Aggregates ............................................. 28

 xii

Figure 3.5: Gradation Curve of Natural Fine Aggregates................................................. 29

Figure 3.6: Comparison of recycled and natural coarse aggregates ................................. 29

Figure 3.7: Determination of Casting Pressure ................................................................. 32

Figure 3.8: Water expulsion from top and bottom of mold .............................................. 35

Figure 3.9: Mortar mixer.................................................................................................. 39

Figure 3.10: Metallic mold for CCT ................................................................................. 40

Figure 3.11: Pouring of concrete in cylindrical mold ....................................................... 41

Figure 3.12: manual compaction through rodding............................................................ 41

Figure 3.13: Compression casting in progress .................................................................. 42

Figure 3.14: Prepared samples .......................................................................................... 42

Figure 3.15: Plastic molds for vibrated samples ............................................................... 43

Figure 3.16: Hole in the bottom of the plastic mold ......................................................... 43

Figure 3.17: Sample extrusion through air pressure ......................................................... 43

Figure 3.18: Water curing of samples ............................................................................... 44

Figure 3.19: Compression testing ..................................................................................... 45

Figure 3.20: Samples with strain gages for E value test ................................................... 46

Figure 3.21: Testing setup for E value in compression .................................................... 47

Figure 3.22: UPV testing device/apparatus ..................................................................... 48

Figure 3.23: Prepared samples for Sorptivity test ............................................................. 49

Figure 3.24: Testing arrangement for Sorptivity test ........................................................ 50

Figure 4.1: Phase I - Density Values [5% cement] ........................................................... 52

Figure 4.2: Phase I - Density Values [10% cement] ......................................................... 52

Figure 4.3: Phase I - Density Values [15% cement] ......................................................... 53

Figure 4.4: Phase I - Density Values [20% cement] ......................................................... 53

Figure 4.5: Phase-I - Compressive strength [5% cement] ................................................ 55

 xiii

Figure 4.6: Phase-I - Compressive strength [10% cement] .............................................. 55

Figure 4.7: Phase-I - Compressive strength [15% cement] .............................................. 56

Figure 4.8: Phase-I - Compressive strength [20% cement] .............................................. 56

Figure 4.9: Phase-I: Relationship between compressive strength and density ................. 57

Figure 4.10: Phase-II: Density values of RAC ................................................................. 59

Figure 4.11: Phase-II: Density values of NAC ................................................................. 60

Figure 4.12: Phase II - Compressive strength of mix 30F70 [10% Cement] .................... 62

Figure 4.13: Phase II - Compressive strength of mix 30F70 [15% Cement] .................... 62

Figure 4.14: Phase II - Compressive strength of mix 40F60 [10% Cement] .................... 63

Figure 4.15: Phase II - Compressive strength of mix 40F60 [15% Cement] .................... 63

Figure 4.16: Phase-II- Relationship between compressive strength and density [A.R =

2] ................................................................................................................................ 65

Figure 4.17: Phase-II- Relationship between compressive strength and density [A.R =

1] ................................................................................................................................ 66

Figure 4.18: Phase II- Modulus of elasticity [10% Cement] ............................................ 67

Figure 4.19: Phase II- Modulus of elasticity [15% Cement] ............................................ 67

Figure 4.20: Phase II- Proposed relationship between fc’ and E [RAC and NAC] .......... 70

Figure 4.21: Phase II- Comparison of relation between fc’ and E with Literature ........... 71

Figure 4.22: Phase II - Relationship between UPV and fc’ [RAC and NAC] .................. 75

Figure 4.23: Phase II - Relationship between E and UPV [RAC and NAC] .................... 76

Figure 4.24: Effect of casting technique on water absorption [30F70C at 10%

Cement] ...................................................................................................................... 78

Figure 4.25: Effect of casting technique on water absorption [30F70C at 15% cement] . 79

Figure 4.26: Effect of casting technique on water absorption [40F60C at 10% cement] . 79

Figure 4.27: Effect of casting technique on water absorption [40F60C at 15% cement] . 80
 xiv

Figure 4.28: Effect of aggregate type on water absorption [30F70C at 15% cement] ..... 81

Figure 4.29: Effect of aggregate type on water absorption [40F60C at 15% cement] ..... 81

Figure 4.30: Water Absorption after 3 months [10% Cement] ......................................... 82

Figure 4.31: Water Absorption after 3 months [15% Cement] ......................................... 83

Figure 4.32: Effect of casting pressure on initial rate of absorption [30F70C at 10%

cement] ....................................................................................................................... 84

Figure 4.33: Effect of casting pressure on initial rate of absorption [30F70C at 15%

cement] ....................................................................................................................... 85

Figure 4.34: Effect of casting pressure on initial rate of absorption [40F60C at 10%

cement] ....................................................................................................................... 85

Figure 4.35: Effect of casting pressure on initial rate of absorption [40F60C at 10%

cement] ....................................................................................................................... 86

Figure 4.36: Effect of casting technique on initial rate of absorption [30F70C at 15%

cement] ....................................................................................................................... 87

Figure 4.37: Effect of casting technique on initial rate of absorption [40F60C at 15%

cement] ....................................................................................................................... 87

Figure 4.38: Effect of aggregate type on initial rate of absorption [30F70C at 15%

cement] ....................................................................................................................... 88

Figure 4.39: Effect of aggregate type on initial rate of absorption [40F60C at 15%

cement] ....................................................................................................................... 89

Figure 4.40: Effect of casting pressure on secondary rate of water absorption [30F70C

at 10% cement] ........................................................................................................... 90

Figure 4.41: Effect of casting pressure on secondary rate of water absorption [30F70C

at 15% cement] ........................................................................................................... 91

 xv

Figure 4.42: Effect of casting pressure on secondary rate of water absorption [40F60C

at 10% cement] ........................................................................................................... 91

Figure 4.43: Effect of casting pressure on secondary rate of water absorption [40F60C

at 15% Cement] .......................................................................................................... 92

Figure 4.44: Effect of casting technique on secondary rate of water absorption

[30F70C at 15% cement] ........................................................................................... 93

Figure 4.45: Effect of casting technique on secondary rate of water absorption

[30F70C at 15% cement] ........................................................................................... 93

Figure 4.46: Effect of aggregate type on secondary rate of water absorption [30F70C

at 15% cement] ........................................................................................................... 94

Figure 4.47: Effect of aggregate type on secondary rate of water absorption [40F60C

at 15% Cement] .......................................................................................................... 95

Figure 4.48: Pavers and cylinder casted to determine aspect ratio effect ......................... 98

Figure 4.49: 7-Day Compressive Strength Results for Cylinders and Pavers .................. 98

Figure 4.50: Phase III-Compressive strength results ...................................................... 100

Figure 4.51: Phase-III-Modulus of Elasticity Testing .................................................... 101

Figure 4.52: Phase III-Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Testing .............................................. 102

Figure 4.53: Phase III-Sorptivity test results .................................................................. 103

Figure 4.54: Initial and secondary rate of water absorption ........................................... 103

Figure 4.55: Cost analysis for bricks .............................................................................. 105

Figure 4.56: Cost analysis of pavers ............................................................................... 106

 xvi

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table 3-1: Physical and mechanical properties of recycled and natural aggregates......... 26

Table 3-2: Test matrix for Phase-I testing program .......................................................... 33

Table 3-3: Test matrix for Phase-II testing program ........................................................ 37

Table 3-4: Test matrix for Phase-III testing program ....................................................... 38

Table 4-1: Relation between E and fc’ - Proposed Equations in Literature ...................... 68

Table 4-2: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test Results in Phase-II ......................................... 73

Table 4-3: Mixes containing 100% recycled fine aggregates ........................................... 96

Table 4-4: Mixes containing recycled fine and coarse aggregates ................................... 97

Table 4-5: Compressive strength results (Phase-III) ........................................................ 99

 xvii

NOMENCLATURE

Symbol Description

ACV Aggregate Crushing Value

AIV Aggregate Impact Value

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

BA Bagasse Ash

BPD Cement By-Pass Dust

C&D Construction & Demolition

CCR Calcium carbide Residue

CCT Compression Casting Technique

CPEC China Pakistan Economic Corridor

E Elastic Modulus of Concrete

fc’ Compressive Strength of Concrete

GGBS Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag

HC Hardened Concrete

HCP Hardened Cement Paste

IBAA Incinerator Bottom Ash Aggregate

ITZ Interfacial Transition Zone

NA Natural Aggregates

NAC Natural Aggregate Concrete

NaCl Sodium Chloride

NCA Natural Coarse Aggregates

 xviii

OPC Ordinary Portland Cement

RA Recycled Aggregates

RAC Recycled Aggregate Concrete

RCA Recycled Coarse Aggregate

RFA Recycled Fine Aggregate

SBR Styrene Butadiene Rubber

SSD Saturated Surface Dry

TFV 10% Fine Value

TIS Thai Industrial Standards

UPV Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

UTM Universal Testing Machine

α,β Co-efficient of regression analysis

ρ Mass density of concrete

 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. GENERAL

Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials by the

construction industry all over the world. The annual production of concrete is around 33

billion tons globally (ISO, 2016). The construction industry is known to be one of the

largest consumers of our natural resources. Since the Natural Aggregates (NA) are the

main constituents of the concrete, with the increasing consumption of the concrete, the

utilization of NA also increases. In the European Union Countries, it is estimated that

about 3 billion tons of natural aggregates are produced annually (EEA, 2008).

Construction industry plays a vital role in the economic growth and infrastructure

development of any country. In many European Union countries, the construction

industry is accountable for 28% of employment and 7% economic production (Mália,

2013). Despite these facts, the construction industry imparts negative effect on the

environment. Presently, protection of the environment from harmful effects of

Construction & Demolition (C&D) waste is the major concern of many countries on the

globe.

As a result of development in the modern world, end-of-life concrete structures

are being demolished and replaced with new smart buildings constructed using advanced

materials. Demolition of such old concrete structures results in production of large

amount of waste concrete which needs to be managed for the protection of our

environment. The most common method of managing this waste is through its disposal in

the landfills but it causes environmental degradation significantly.

 2

In past two decades, one of the ways being suggested to reuse the waste concrete

in construction industry is by extracting aggregates from the waste concrete by crushing.

Coarse and fine aggregates are separated and then used to partly or fully replace the fresh

natural aggregates to make new concrete termed as Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC)

for different applications. Such use of construction waste after recycling in new

construction in Pakistan for sustainable development is our current need to save natural

resources of natural aggregates. Crushing of old concrete to produce recycled aggregates

to be used in new concrete production is one of the efficient methods of recycling of such

waste. Use of Recycled Aggregates (RA) to make new/fresh concrete not only helps in

effective management of C&D waste but also in conservation of natural resources of

aggregates. Efforts to recycle and reuse construction waste have already led to extensive

research work being carried out in technologically advanced countries in order to

evaluate the performance of RAC used in the making of different construction products

such as pavers and concrete blocks. However, very less attention has been paid in this

regard and therefore there is a dire need of carrying out research work in this area in

Pakistan.

Extensive research has been carried out in the past to determine the properties of

RAC from different viewpoints related to the source and quality of the recycled

aggregates and findings of such studies have highlighted the impact of type and

properties of recycled aggregate on the mechanical properties and durability of RAC.

Researchers from several countries have recommended the use of coarse fraction of the

recycled concrete, however, use of fine fraction of the recycled aggregate is not
 3

recommended due to its negative impact on the properties (such as compressive

strength, water absorption and shrinkage, etc.) of the resulting concrete (Claudio, 2011).

In most of the previously carried our research studies, the maximum

recommended contents of the Recycled Coarse Aggregate (RCA) are 60% whereas for

Recycled Fine Aggregate (RFA) they are limited to 20% in normal concrete production

(Xinyi et al, 2019). In order to increase the scope of using maximum RA in concrete, it is

required to propose different ways by carrying out research studies to utilize 100% RA in

concrete production. For this purpose, in this study, the mix design of RAC made using

100% recycled aggregate to be used in the production of pavers and masonry blocks has

been carried out. Both coarse and fine aggregates were 100% recycled aggregates.

Negative effect of recycled fine aggregates on volumetric changes such as shrinkage was

avoided through compaction by pressure application. Compressive strength, modulus of

elasticity, ultrasonic pulse velocity and sorptivity of the concrete mixes designed by

varying water content, cement quantity, pressure value, ratio of coarse to fine aggregates

and admixtures have been studied. In the end cost analysis of recycled aggregate with

natural aggregate concrete has also been done for comparison.

1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

Huge consumption of natural aggregates by the construction industry is one of the

major problems nowadays with respect to the depletion of the natural resources. Thus,

use of old concrete as recycled aggregates in new concrete for various application such as

to produce construction elements like pavers and masonry blocks may be considered a

better solution with respect to sustainable development. Due to the detrimental effect of
 4

the fine recycled aggregate on the durability properties of the concrete such as

shrinkage, high water absorption and increased porosity, its use in the recycled aggregate

concrete has been restricted by the previous research studies (Xiao, 2019). Furthermore,

the use of coarse recycled aggregate was also limited to 40-60% due to the significant

decrease in the compressive strength of the resulting concrete having recycled coarse

aggregate content greater than 60%. This study has focused on the use of 100% recycled

aggregates both fine and coarse aggregates in making of concrete to be used in the

production of pavers and masonry blocks. In order to eliminate negative effect of

recycled fine aggregates and higher contents of recycled coarse aggregates on the

concrete properties, compaction of concrete has been done through pressure application.

1.3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF STUDY

In this study the effect of parameters such as ratio of coarse to fine recycled

aggregates, amount of binder (cement), water content, use of super-plasticizer and value

of pressure applied for compaction on the compressive strength of the 100% recycled

aggregate concrete to be used in making pavers and masonry blocks has been

investigated. Based on this investigation, mix design of 100% recycled aggregate

concrete able to develop minimum compressive strength required for such applications

has been proposed.

More specifically, following are the main objectives for this research work:

 To propose mix designs of 100% recycled aggregate concretes able to

develop compressive strength of 35 MPa [for paver production] and 15

MPa [for masonry blocks production].

 5

 Cost analysis of 100% RAC with NAC for comparison

To achieve above mentioned objective, the scope of the research work is as

follows:

 Preparation of cylindrical test specimens [75mm diameter and 150 mm

height] by varying cement quantity, water contents, ratio of course to fine

recycled aggregates, use of superplasticizer and value of applied pressure

for compaction. For compression casting, special steel mold was prepared.

 Determining physical properties (density and water absorption) and

mechanical properties (compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and

ultrasonic pulse velocity) of the cylindrical samples prepared using

different concrete mixes.

 Comparing cost of production of 100 bricks to be prepared using proposed

mixes of RAC and NAC considering all factors such as material and labor

requirement for this production.

1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

Waste concrete is being produced in a large volume in our construction industry

from several sources such as the structures dismantled because of inadequate design or

expired design life, structures damaged by natural disasters such as earthquakes & floods

and the structures damaged by blast or fire events. Further, defective members in precast

concrete industry are also another form of waste concrete. Concrete samples tested in

material testing laboratories are one of the major sources of waste concrete in Pakistan.

Left over concrete from concrete batching plants and dismantled road infrastructure is
 6

also key source of waste concrete. Natural resources of aggregates in Pakistan are

decreasing with time due to making of large volume of concrete required for mega

construction projects such as dams, roads and CPEC projects. This particular study has

proposed mix designs of concrete containing 100% RA for manufacturing pavers and

masonry blocks. Design and development of concrete pavers and masonry blocks from

waste concrete in Pakistan will not only help to protect the environment from C&D waste

but also contribute towards sustainable development by preserving the natural resources

of the country.

1.5. ORGANIZATION OF THESIS

The thesis report has been divided into five chapters. Brief detail of each chapter

is given below:

Chapter 1: “Introduction”- In this chapter a broad overview of the recycled

aggregate concrete is presented. Further, problem statement, research objectives, scope of

study and significance of the research are also discussed.

Chapter 2: “Literature Review”- Extensive literature review with respect to the

significance of RAC was carried out. In this chapter, findings of the past studies which

are most relevant to this study area have been discussed. Finally, major observations

related to literature review have been discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 3: “Experimental Methodology”- In order to achieve the objectives of

this study, experimental program designed and carried out has been presented and

discussed. The details with respect to material preparation and sample preparation have

been presented in this chapter.

 7

Chapter 4: “Test Results and Discussions”- In this chapter the experimental

results regarding the mix design of concrete mixes to be used for the manufacturing of

masonry units and pavers with minimum compressive strength of 15 MPa and 35 MPa

respectively are presented. The results of density, compressive strength, modulus of

elasticity, ultrasonic pulse velocity & sorptivity of concrete and their relationships for

RAC and NAC are presented and discussed in detail. The main focus of discussion has

been to highlight the effect of casting technique, the ratio of fine to coarse content of

recycled aggregates and cement dosage on the strength of resulting RAC mixes.

Chapter 5: “Conclusions and Recommendations”- In this chapter, the results-

based conclusions and recommendations are presented. Lastly, recommendations for

future research in continuation of this study are also given in this chapter.

At the end, a list of references is provided.

 8

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter deals with literature review that focuses on recent researcher's

contribution to the field of recycled aggregate concrete. Extensive research work has

been carried out on RAC in the last decade regarding its mechanical characterization

and durability aspects. Major focus of such studies had been the optimum replacement

level of coarse natural/fresh aggregates with coarse recycled aggregates to design

normal strength concrete and give recommendation regarding the usage of fine

recycled aggregates in fresh concrete. Comparison of mechanical properties of RAC

with NAC in the past studies has given confidence to the end user of such composite

and use of RAC in real applications has been reported in many studies (Xiao, 2012).

In the following section, findings of few important research studies on RAC

have been presented.

2.1. HASSAN ET AL., (2021)

Among many important past research studies on RAC, Ruaa Yousif Hassan et

al., (2021) conducted a study to describe the mechanical properties of the recycled

aggregate concrete containing recycled coarse aggregate or recycled fine aggregate

only and also containing both recycled coarse and recycled fine aggregate. 50% and

100% replacement of natural aggregate with recycled aggregate were studied. They

found out that when employing a 100% replacement ratio instead of a 50%

replacement ratio of recycled coarse aggregate and recycled fine aggregate, the

percentage decrease in compressive strength was lower. Further, the compression

strength of the recycled aggregate concrete was found to be lower than ordinary

concrete. However, the percentage loss in resistance was lower when employing a 100

percent replacement ratio [R-(g+s) 100] as compared to a 50 percent replacement ratio

 9

[R-(g+s) 50]. This is owing to the variability of the concrete mix's components, as

well as the presence of voids caused by a lack of bonding between the concrete

constituents. The following figure 2.1 obtained from this study shows the graphical

results of 28 days compressive strength of RAC containing both coarse and fine

recycled aggregate with different replacement ratios.

Figure 2.1: Variation of compressive strength & % replacement of RA [Hassan, 2021]

2.2. BHAT, (2021)

J. A. Bhat, (2021) studied the mechanical properties of the recycled aggregate

concrete containing recycled aggregates of different strength classes. In this research,

he used the recycled aggregate in the Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) condition to

compensate the considerably increased water absorption of for the recycled

aggregates. This helped him in achieving a concrete having no slump loss with a

slump of 90±10mm. Three different grades of concrete were produced named normal,

medium and high strength concrete. Based on the results, it had been concluded that

the grade of the parent concrete has no significant effect on the compressive strength
 10

of the resulting recycled aggregate concrete. However, the high strength recycled

aggregate concrete has more superior mechanical properties than medium and low

strength concrete. The following figure 2.2 obtain from this study shows the

compressive strength of high strength concrete containing different grades of parent

concrete.

Figure 2.2: Effect of parent concrete on the compressive strength of RAC [Bhat,

2021]

2.3. MATAR ET AL., (2020)

Pierre Matar et al., (2020) conducted a study to investigate the effect of

waterproofing agent on the compressive strength and permeability of the RAC. They

analyzed both natural as well as recycled aggregate concrete for comparison. Based

on the results of their research, they concluded that the water proofing agent has no

significant effect on temperature, density and air content of both natural and recycled

aggregate concrete. Whereas, the workability and compressive strength of the both

NAC and RAC were enhanced due to waterproofing agent. The increased workability

was due to the fact that the admixture used disperses the cement particles and allow
 11

the water trapped between these particles to escape resultantly increases

workability. The results of the compressive strength of concrete from this study are

shown in Figure 2.3 below (the suffix 1 represents concrete without admixture and 2

with admixture). The water permeability was analyzed by using rapid chloride ion

penetration depth. In general the chloride ion penetration resistance of RAC is less

than that of NAC. However, the waterproofing admixture had the positive impact on

it and it increased the chloride ion penetration of RAC as much as equal to the NAC.

Figure 2.3: Compressive strength of concrete with and without admixtures [Matar,

2020]

2.4. RASHID ET AL., (2020)

Khuram Rashid et al., (2020) carried out a study on recycled aggregate

concrete mixes optimization using multi-criteria. In this research work various aspects

of recycled aggregate concrete like mechanical, ecological and financial were

investigated. They have used replacements ratio of Natural Coarse Aggregate (NCA)

with Recycled Coarse Aggregate (RCA) from 25% to 100%. The target strength to be

achieved ranged from 17-35 MPa. Precast rejects were used to obtain RCA. They
 12

concluded their research with the results that as compared to NCA, the density of

RCA was lesser and water absorption was greater because of the attached permeable

mortar. The 28 days compressive strength reduced from 8.22% to 15.81% by adding

RCA from 0 to 100%. The decrease in strength was due to the attached permeable

mortar, fragile and cracked aged Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ), and poor

development of bond between old and new ITZ because of the Saturated Surface Dry

state of the Recycled aggregate. Moreover the use of super-plasticizers for early age

strength was investigated and it was reported that early age strength was improved

from 25% to 36% by using a super-plasticizer. The following figure 2.4 from this

study shows a comprehensive summary of the compressive strength results of the

recycled aggregate concrete at the age of 28 days.

Figure 2.4: 28 days compressive strength of RAC [Rashid, 2020]

2.5. XINYI ET AL., (2019)

Xinyi Wang et al., (2019) carried out a study on the characterization of RAC

which was made using both coarse as well as fine recycled aggregates. They prepared
 13

concrete blocks by using different proportions of the recycled aggregates. They

concluded their research with the remarks that fine recycled aggregates had an

adverse consequence on the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of the

recycled concrete blocks as shown in figure 2.5 below.

Figure 2.5: Relationship between Replacement level and compressive strength of

RAC [Xinyi, 2019]

Moreover, the water absorption of blocks having high fine recycled aggregate

was also much higher as shown in figure 2.6. Based on all their study, they

recommended a replacement level of less than 60% and 20% for coarse recycled

aggregate and fine recycled aggregate, respectively to meet the requirement of the

standards.
 14

Figure 2.6: Relationship between Replacement level and Water Absorption of RAC
[Xinyi, 2019]

2.6. AKKADATH ET AL., (2019)

Akkadath, Abdulmatin, et al., (2019) examined the effect of industrial

discarded products and 100% recycled aggregates on the performance of interlocking

concrete paving blocks. In this research, two kinds of waste material Bagasse Ash

(BA) and Calcium carbide Residue (CCR) were used as a binder instead of Portland

cement and 100% recycled aggregates were used instead of natural aggregates. The

results of their research indicated that the density of the paving blocks was decreased

by using BA and CCR as a binder whereas the water absorption increased as

compared to the blocks having binder in highly ground form. The compressive

strength of some of the blocks fulfilled the requirements of Thai industrial Standards

(TIS 827, 1988), which was greater than 40 MPa. Their research concluded with the

remarks that the appropriate proportions of BA and CCR as binder and use of

recycled aggregates can be employed as an alternative material for the manufacturing

of interlocking concrete paving blocks.

 15

2.7. YUVA ET AL., (2016)

Y. Sakai et al., (2016) recommended an innovative method for the recycling of

discarded concrete using compaction under pressure. The basic advantage of this

technique was its fast production rate and 100% recycling of waste concrete without

separating the gravels and other components. In this research, both Hardened Cement

Paste (HCP) and Hardened Concrete (HC) were crushed milled and then compacted to

make compact specimens. The HCP compacts showed higher compressive strength

than HC compacts alone as shown in Figure 2.7 below obtain from their published

work. Based on this finding, HCP or sledge cakes were added in the HC compacts to

enhance its characteristics. By performing carbonation treatment, it was found that the

strength of the HC compacts was increased, and all the treatments found useful.

Another benefit of this technique was that it could be used to control the volumetric

changes of concrete due to moisture loss and absorption can be achieved by drying the

crushed powder before compaction as shown in figure 2.8.

Figure 2.7: Compressive strength of HC under different conditions [Yuva, 2016]

 16

Figure 2.8: Volumetric Changes after compaction [Yuva, 2016]

2.8. ESHMAIEL ET AL., (2015)

Eshmaiel Ganjian et al., (2015) investigated the use of discarded material and

by-products in the manufacturing of paving concrete blocks. They used a number of

by products and waste material including granulated blast furnace (GGBS), cement

by-pass dust (BPD), incinerator bottom ash aggregate (IBAA) etc. but most

importantly used materials were aggregate made with recycled concrete and recycled

bricks for the manufacturing of environmental friendly concrete pavement blocks.

The results showed that by using 6.3% GGBS and 0.7% BPD with 7% OPC as a

binder could decrease the consumption of Portland cement by 30% as compared to its

general use in the factories. Moreover, these blocks also satisfied the minimum

requirement of 3.6 MPa split tensile strength at the age of 28 days. The blocks also

showed good abrasion and freeze-thaw resistance.

 17

2.9. PEDRO ET AL., (2014)

D. Pedro et al., (2014) conducted a study on the influence of recycled concrete

aggregates attained from different origins on the structural concrete. This research

aimed to produce concrete having predefined performance containing recycled

aggregate concrete from different sources. Parent concrete was obtained from precast

rejects and laboratory samples. Three classes of strength i.e., from 15 to 25 MPa, 35

to 45 MPa and 60 to 75 MPa were prepared. They studied the effect of replacing

100% of Coarse Natural Aggregates (CNA) with Coarse Recycled Aggregate (CRA)

and it was found that the percentage difference in the compressive strength of the

cylinders was decreased as the strength of the parent concrete was increased. Similar

trends had been found for the modulus of elasticity as well as shown in the following

Figure 2.9 and 2.10 obtained from their study. Moreover, the performance losses of

the concrete incorporating recycled aggregate was also reduced by using high strength

concrete.

Figure 2.9: Compressive strength of RAC having different strength of parent concrete
[Pedro, 2014]
 18

Figure 2.10: Elasticity Modulus of RAC having different strength of parent concrete
[Pedro, 2014]

2.10. LÓPEZ ET AL., (2013)

F. López Gayarre et al., (2013) investigated the performance of kerbs and

floor blocks made with recycled aggregate and construction and demolition waste.

The behavior of two kinds of recycled aggregates was studied in this research. First

one majorly contained concrete waste whereas the second one contained brick waste.

The concrete was prepared by using replacement ratios of 20%, 50%, 70% and 100%.

It was found that the physical and mechanical properties of the blocks prepared with

recycled aggregates are not excessively affected. The results of water absorption of

kerbs from this study are displayed in figure 2.11. However, the surface finish of the

kerbs prepared with recycled aggregates was poorer than that of kerbs prepared with

natural fresh aggregates.

 19

Figure 2.11: Water absorption of kerbs at different replacement ratios of RA [López,

2013]

2.11. PADMINI ET AL., (2009)

A.K. Padmini et al., (2009) examined the effect of parent concrete on the

behavior of the concrete containing recycled aggregate. In this research they used

concrete of three different strengths from different sources. By using this parent

concrete three different strength recycled aggregates were made and studied. It was

concluded that the recycled aggregate concrete required lower water to cement ratio

than parent concrete to attain certain value of strength in compression. Further, the

strength in compression of the RAC was noted to rise as the strength of the parent

concrete was improved. Lastly, for a given compressive strength the flexural and split

tensile strength along with the elasticity modulus of recycled aggregate concrete was

less than that of the parent concrete.

 20

2.12. FINDINGS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

The issues of mechanical properties (lower compressive strength) and

durability properties (shrinkage, water absorption and porosity) of the concrete

prepared with recycled aggregates having different replacement ratios and using

Portland cement as binder are evident from the previous researches. At the same time

there is no study proposing RAC mix containing 100% recycled aggregates. The

following findings have been observed during literature review:

 Very few studies have been conducted where compression casting

technique has been employed to make RAC with better mechanical and

durability properties. However, the benefit of CCT was evident from such

studies.

 No research study has been carried out in the past using compression

casting technique and 100% recycled aggregate (both coarse & fine).

However, experimental investigations have been done on concrete made

using 100% recycled aggregates but employing conventional casting

technique [vibration].

 The researchers working on vibrated RAC have not recommended 100%

usage of recycled aggregates because of significant drop in compressive

strength and durability properties.

 For the vibrated RAC, use of recycled fine aggregate has not been

recommended in any research.

In this regard, this research study focuses on 100% recycling of waste concrete

incorporating both fine and coarse recycled aggregates to design concrete satisfying

the requirements of strength and durability properties with respect to application in

 21

the production of pavers and masonry blocks. Compaction through pressure

application has been achieved for reducing the negative effects of fine recycled

aggregate on the concrete properties. Besides the value of applied pressure for this

purpose, following are the study parameters

 Amount of binder

 Casting Technique and Casting Pressure

 Proportion of coarse and fine aggregate

 Water content

 Use of SBR-Latex and locally available super-plasticizer.

 22

3. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, methodology adopted to achieve the objectives of study has

been presented. Preparation of various materials used to develop the concrete mixes

and procedure of different tests performed to determine the properties of materials and

hardened concrete mixes have been discussed in this chapter.

3.1. PHASES OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Experimental work under the scope of this project has been carried out to

achieve the following two objectives as already discussed in chapter No.1

 Mix design of concrete of 15 MPa target compressive strength at 28

days using 100% recycled aggregates (both fine and coarse),with

minimum possible cement contents and by employing Compression

Casting Technique (CCT). The designed concrete mix will be used in

the manufacturing of brick masonry units.

 Mix design of concrete of 35 MPa target compressive strength at 28

days using 100% recycled aggregates, with minimum possible cement

content and by employing compression casting technique. The

designed concrete mix will be used in the manufacturing of paving

blocks.

To achieve above mentioned objectives related to first part, the experimental

work has been carried out in following three phases. The first two phases were related

to first objective while the third phase was related to second objective. It is important

to mention here that the experimental work carried out in phase II was designed based

on the observations of work carried out in phase-I.

 23

3.1.1. Phase I- for 15MPa Concrete Mix Design

Concrete mixes were prepared by CCT using 100% recycled aggregates for 15

MPa target compressive strength having three different mix ratios with respect to fine

and coarse aggregates and four different cement contents. Water content was decided

considering high-water absorption of recycled aggregates.

3.1.2. Phase II - for 15MPa Concrete Mix Design (RAs in SSD Condition)

Based on the findings/observations of work done in Phase I, recycled

aggregates were used in SSD conditions to design concrete mixes of 15 MPa target

compressive strength having two different mix ratios with two different cement

contents. Water-cement ratio was kept constant for all mixes in this case. For the

purpose of comparison, in this phase of testing program, samples were also prepared

using 100% natural aggregates (both fine and coarse) by CCT. Vibrated recycled

aggregates concrete samples were also prepared in this phase in order to study the

difference in strength value of RAC samples compacted through vibration and

pressure.

3.1.3. Phase III - for 35MPa Concrete Mix Design

Mix design of concrete with target compressive strength of 35 MPa at 7 days

of age was carried out in this phase. For this mix design, initially concrete mixes

containing 100% recycled fine aggregates, two different cement contents, SBR-Latex

and super-plasticizer were prepared by CCT and tested under compressive load.

Based on the results obtained from this testing, new test matrix were designed

incorporating recycled fine as well as coarse aggregates with a higher cement content

to achieve the target compressive strength of 35 MPa.

 24

3.2. MATERIALS

Following materials were used in preparation of concrete mixes for above

mentioned three phases:

3.2.1. Cement

For this study, locally available Ordinary Portland Cement (Bestway cement)

was used in all concrete mixes.

3.2.2. Recycled Aggregates (RA)

In order to produce recycled aggregates for this study, tested samples of

concrete having compressive strength range of 3000 psi (21 MPa) to 4000 psi (28

MPa) available in concrete Laboratory of Civil Engineering Department UET Lahore

were taken. Following procedure was adopted to produce recycled aggregates from

such commercially tested samples:

i. Tested samples of concrete were broken into large pieces using

hammer.

ii. Such large pieces were then passed from jaw crusher to get concrete

pieces of size ranging from 25mm to 60mm.

iii. Material obtained after jaw crushing was then passed from roller

crusher in order to get the required maximum particle size of 12mm.

iv. Finally, sieving was done to separate coarse and fine aggregates using

sieve # 4.

The complete process of production of recycled aggregates is shown in Figure

3.1. Various physical and mechanical tests were performed on fine and coarse

aggregates following ASTM/BS standards in order to characterize them. The results

 25

of such tests have been presented in Table 3.1. Gradation curves of coarse and fine

recycled aggregates along with ASTM upper and lower limits are shown in Figure 3.2

and Figure 3.3, respectively

Figure 3.1: Process of production of recycled concrete aggregates

 26

Table 3-1: Physical and mechanical properties of recycled and natural aggregates

Recycled Aggregates Natural Aggregates

Property Testing standard
Coarse Fine Coarse Fine

Bulk oven dry Specific ASTM C127 & ASTM

2.26 2.05 2.84 2.70
Gravity C128

Bulk SSD Specific ASTM C127 & ASTM

2.44 2.28 2.86 2.75
Gravity C128

Bulk Apparent Specific ASTM C127 & ASTM

2.76 2.66 2.87 2.84
Gravity C128

ASTM C127 & ASTM

Water Absorption (%) 7.97 11.15 0.9 1.79
C128

Moisture Content (%) ASTM C566 2.37 5.32 0.9 1.2

Flakiness Index (%) BS 812-105.1 14.1 - 19.6 -

Elongation Index (%) BS 812-105.2 21.25 - 44.1 -

Bulk Density (kg/m³) ASTM C29 1267 1335 1441 1722

Los Angeles Abrasion

ASTM C131 37.57 - 25.20
Value, %

Aggregate Crushing
BS 812-110 20.80 - 22.55
Value, ACV (%)

10% Fine Value, TFV

BS 812-111 184.36 - 199.57
(kN)

Aggregate Impact
BS 812-112 15.36 - 17.70
Value, AIV (%)
 27

Recycled Coarse Aggregates

Gradation Curve ASTM Upper Limit ASTM Lower Limit
100

90

80

70
% Passing

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
4
Particle Size (mm)

Figure 3.2: Gradation curve of recycled coarse aggregates

Recycled Fine Aggregates

Gradation Curve ASTM Upper Limit ASTM Lower Limit
100

90

80

70
% Passing

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
10 1 0.1 0.01
Particle Size (mm)

Figure 3.3: Gradation curve of recycled fine aggregates

 28

3.2.3. Natural Aggregates (NA)

For this study, locally available river sand [Chenab sand (80%) + Lawrencepur

sand (20%)] was used as fine aggregates while Margallah crush was used as coarse

aggregates. Physical and mechanical properties of natural fine and coarse aggregates

are presented in Table 3.1. Gradation curves of coarse and fine natural aggregates

along with ASTM upper and lower limits are shown in Figure 3.4 and Figure 3.5,

respectively. Natural and recycled coarse aggregates [maximum size of 12 mm] used

in this study are shown in Figure 3.6.

Natural Coarse Aggregates

Gradation Curve ASTM Upper Limit ASTM Lower Limit
100

90

80

70
% Passing

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
4
Particle Size (mm)

Figure 3.4: Gradation curve of Natural Coarse Aggregates

 29

Natural Fine Aggregates

Gradation Curve ASTM Upper Limit ASTM Lower Limit
100

90

80

70
% Passing

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
10 1 0.1 0.01
Particle Size (mm)

Figure 3.5: Gradation Curve of Natural Fine Aggregates

Figure 3.6: Comparison of recycled and natural coarse aggregates

3.2.4. SBR-Latex

Locally available Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR)-Latex was used in this

work to improve the binding properties of the concrete mixes. SBR-Latex is a

 30

synthetic rubber emulsion for adding to cement mortars and concretes where good

adhesion, water resistance and improved strength characteristics are required

(Construction Chemicals, 2022).

3.2.5. Super-plasticizer

Locally available admixture based on carboxylic acid derivatives brand named

as “Chemrite 303 SP” was used as super plasticizer in this study. This high

performance, water-reducing concrete admixture provides following advantages when

added to the concrete/mortar (Construction Chemicals, 2022).

 Desired levels of slump retention

 Increased setting time in hot weather

 Reduced mixing water without loss of workability

 Increased strength

 Improves concrete resistance to plastic and drying shrinkage

 Avoid honeycombing of concrete

This super-plasticizer has density at 25°C of 1.06 ± 0.01 kg/Lit and chloride

content Nil.

3.3. CONCRETE MIXES

In the following section, complete detail of concrete mixes prepared for the

phases as discussed above has been provided. Following tests were performed on

hardened concrete samples prepared using all concrete mixes: hardened density,

compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, elastic modulus and water absorption

through sorptivity test.

 31

3.3.1. Mixes for Phase – 1

In order to design RAC mix of target cylinder compressive strength of 15 MPa

for bricks using 100% recycled aggregates, test matrix presented in Table 3.2 was

designed in Phase-I. It may be noticed in this table that total three different mix ratios

of recycled fine and coarse aggregates were studied. Four cement contents of 5%,

10%, 15% and 20% by weight of total aggregates were investigated. For each mix,

water to cement ratio was kept as 0.3, however, extra water was added to each mix

considering the water absorption capacity of recycled aggregates. The samples were

prepared using CCT at three different pressure values of 25MPa, 35MPa and 45 MPa.

To decide the value of the casting pressure to be applied, a pilot study was

conducted in which specimens were prepared at various casting pressure varying from

10 MPa up to 45 MPa pressure and their corresponding densities were measured.

From the results obtained plotted in Figure 3.7, it was observed that with the increase

in casting pressure the density of the resulting specimen was increased. Hence, the

lower limit of 25 MPa was decided based on the aspects related to sample making and

required compressive strength of RAC while the upper limit of 45 MPa was decided

based on infrastructure availability to apply compaction pressure more than this value

and also field applications.

Regarding the designation of mixes, for example RAC-30F70C, RAC stands

for recycled aggregate concrete, 30 is percentage by weight of recycled fine

aggregates, F stands for fine recycled aggregates, 70 is percentage by weight of

recycled coarse aggregates and C stands for coarse recycled aggregates. Similarly,

designation of other mixes is defined. It is to be noted that for each case three test

specimens were prepared. In this way, for 36 different cases with respect to mix ratio,
 32

cement content and pressure applied, 108 test specimens were prepared and tested

for compressive strength in this phase.

Figure 3.7: Determination of Casting Pressure

 33

Table 3-2: Test matrix for Phase-I testing program

Cement Pressure Applied,

Sr. No. Mix Designation Water content
Content MPa
1 25
2 5% 35
3 45
4 25
5 10% 35
6 45
RAC-30F70C
7 25
8 15% 35
9 45
10 25
11 20% 35
12 45
13 25
14 5% 35
15 45
16 Water to cement ratio = 0.3 25
17 10% plus extra water according 35
18 to water absorption 45
RAC-40F60C
19 capacity of recycled 25
20 15% aggregates 35
21 45
22 25
23 20% 35
24 45
25 25
26 5% 35
27 45
28 25
29 10% 35
30 45
RAC-50F50C
31 25
32 15% 35
33 45
34 25
35 20% 35
36 45
 34

3.3.2. Mixes for Phase II

Observations related to specimen preparation through compression casting

technique (CCT) and results of compressive strength achieved (discussed in section

No. 4.1.2) in phase-I testing led to design of phase-II testing program. During

preparation of test specimen by compression casting technique in phase-I, it was

noticed that significant amount of extra water added in the mix to incorporate higher

water absorption of RAs was expelled from the mix as shown in Figure 3.8. The

expelled water was collected during specimen preparation in different cases and it was

noticed that 28 to 34% of added water was expelled depending upon mix proportion

and pressure applied resulting in lower effective water to cement ratio and hence

lesser compressive strength. Due to these observations, a new testing phase was

designed and the test matrix of phase-II testing is presented in Table 3.3. The major

difference in the mix design from phase-I was that recycled aggregates were used in

SSD condition in this phase and water to cement ratio was decided accordingly.

Similar to phase-I testing, the samples were prepared using compression casting

technique at three different pressure values of 25MPa, 35MPa and 45 MPa. In this

phase, samples using concrete mixes of 100% natural aggregates (having same ratio

as that of RAC) were also prepared using compression casting technique at above

mentioned three pressure values. In addition to that, samples using RAC mixes were

also prepared by compaction through vibration. For each case presented in Table 3.3,

six test specimens were prepared. Out of six specimens, two specimens were used for

compression test having aspect ratio of 1, two were used for modulus of elasticity test

and two samples were used for sorptivity test. In this way, for 28 different cases with

respect to mix ratio, cement content and pressure applied, 168 test specimens were

prepared and tested for their properties in this phase.

 35

Figure 3.8: Water expulsion from top and bottom of mold

3.3.3. Phase III

For the design of concrete pavers of 35 MPa compressive strength at 28 days,

the test matrix presented in Table 4 was designed. Initially samples with only recycled

fine aggregates were casted by CCT. In order to find the pressure value for

compression casting method with respect to maximum density achieved, samples

were first prepared at different pressure and density of the same was found out after

24 hours of casting. Based on the results, pressure value of 25 MPa was selected for

compression casting technique. Two different cement contents were investigated in

this phase. For the mix design, effect of SBR-Latex and super-plasticizer on the

strength development was studied. For mixes presented in Table 3-4 from Sr. # 1 to 4,

28 days compressive strength testing was carried and it has been observed that none

of the mix was able to achieve the target compressive strength of 35 MPa. Thus, new

test matrix presented in Table 3-4 from Sr. # 5 to 9, was defined incorporating both

fine and coarse aggregates at a casting pressure of 45 MPa to get the maximum

advantage of CCT. It is important to note here that the coarse aggregates used in this

case were of smaller size and ranged from 4.57mm to 6.35mm. The cement content
 36

was increased up to 30%. Information regarding the water contents is given in

Table 3.4. For each case two test specimens were prepared and tested for compressive

strength. Lastly for the two proposed mixes 6 specimens were prepared in which two

specimens were meant for compression test having aspect ratio of 1, two were meant

for modulus of elasticity test and two samples are used for sorptivity test. In this way,

for 9 different cases, 26 test specimens were prepared and tested.

 37

Table 3-3: Test matrix for Phase-II testing program

Pressure
Sr. No. Mix Designation Cement Contents Water content
Applied, MPa
1 25
2 10% 35
3 45
RAC-30F70C
4 25
5 15% 35
w/c ratio = 0.5
6 45
(recycled aggregates
7 25
used in SSD condition)
8 10% 35
9 45
RAC-40F60C
10 25
11 15% 35
12 45
13 25
14 10% 35
15 45
NAC-30F70C
16 25
17 15% 35
18 45
w/c ratio = 0.5
19 25
20 10% 35
21 45
NAC-40F60C
22 25
23 15% 35
24 45
25 10%
RAC-30F70C-V w/c ratio = 0.5
26 15% Compaction by
(recycled aggregates
27 10% Vibration
RAC-40F60C-V used in SSD condition)
28 15%
 38

Table 3-4: Test matrix for Phase-III testing program

Sr. Cement w/c

Mix Designation SBR-Latex Super-plasticizer
No. Content ratio
1 100F0C-C15-SBR 15% 0.6 6L/50 kg of cement -----
2 100F0C C20-SBR 20% 0.6 6L/50 kg of cement -----
3 100F0C -C15-SP 15% 0.6 ----- 1 % by wt. of cement
4 100F0C -C20-SP 20% 0.6 ----- 1 % by wt. of cement
5 80F20C-C25-SP 25% 0.3 ----- 1 % by wt. of cement
6 30F70C-C30-SP 30% 0.3 ----- 1 % by wt. of cement
7 60F40C-C25-SP 25% 0.3 ----- 1 % by wt. of cement
8 60F40C-C30-SP 30% 0.3 ----- 1 % by wt. of cement
9 60F40C-C30-SP 30% 0.35 ----- 1 % by wt. of cement

3.4. MIX PREPARATION

In order to prepare concrete mixes, a mortar mixer as shown in Figure 3.9 was

used. After weight batching, dry mixing of all constituents of mix was done for one

minute and then after adding water, wet mixing was done for two minutes. Recycled

coarse aggregates were used in SSD condition except for samples prepared in phase-I

testing using recycled aggregates. For this purpose, recycled coarse aggregates were

dipped in water for 24 hours and then their surfaces were dried in open air before

preparing the concrete mix.

 39

Figure 3.9: Mortar mixer

3.5. SAMPLE PREPARATION

As discussed earlier, in this work, samples were prepared using following two

techniques:

 Compression Casting Technique

 Conventional Technique (Compaction by Vibration)

In this way effect of casting technique on the properties of concrete was

studied.

3.5.1. Compression Casting Technique (CCT)

Cylindrical specimens of size 75mm diameter and 150mm height were casted

using compression casting technique. For this purpose special metallic mold was

prepared and used as shown in Figure 3.10. This mold consisted of three parts as

shown in this figure. Part 1 is the hollow cylindrical tube having internal diameter

equal to 75mm. Height of this part is 275 mm. Part 2 is end block fixed on one end.

This part had small holes at three locations in order to release the extruded/expelled
 40

water due to pressure application to avoid pore water pressure. Part 3 is a plunger

which was used to apply the pressure of the material filled in part 1 of this mold.

Figure 3.10: Metallic mold for CCT

Following step by step procedure for compression casting technique was

adopted to prepare the test samples:

i. Hollow cylindrical part of the mold (part 1) after fixing the end block

(part 2) was placed in the machine. It was then filled with material in

two layers as shown in Figure 3.11. Each layer was compacted by 25

strokes of steel rod (Figure 3.12).

ii. As part 3 of the mold had two sub parts (A & B as shown in Figure

3.10), both were placed one above the other inside the part 1 of the

mold as shown in Figure 3.13.

iii. As per required pressure, the load was then applied on part 3 with the

help of UTM as shown in Figure 3.13.

iv. In order to extrude the sample smoothly from the part 1, it was rotated,

end block (part 2) was removed and the load was applied from the
 41

opposite side with the help of part 3 of the mold. Typical extruded

samples are shown in Figure 3.14.

v. As mentioned earlier, sample height was required to be 150mm. The

extruded sample of larger height was cut with the help of concrete

cutter to required height (i.e., 150mm) before testing.

Figure 3.11: Pouring of concrete in cylindrical mold

Figure 3.12: manual compaction through rodding

 42

Figure 3.13: Compression casting in progress

Figure 3.14: Prepared samples

3.5.2. Conventional Casting Technique (Compaction by Vibration)

In order to cast vibrated samples, plastic molds were used as shown in Figure

3.15. These plastic molds had hole in their bottom plate as shown in Figure 3.16.

Before pouring the concrete in such mold, this hole was covered with scotch tape.

After 24 hours when concrete was hardened, the sample was extruded from the mold

by applying air pressure through this hole as shown in Figure 3.17. Through this way

of casting cylindrical samples using plastic molds, use of heavy metallic molds

generally used in Pakistan may be avoided. Time required for de-molding with such
 43

plastic molds was significantly lesser as compared to conventional metallic molds

which generally require opening of different parts of mold.

Figure 3.15: Plastic molds for vibrated samples

Figure 3.16: Hole in the bottom of the plastic mold

Figure 3.17: Sample extrusion through air pressure

 44

3.6. CURING METHOD

All prepared samples were water cured. After 24 hours of casting, the samples

were dipped in water tub for a period of 28 days as shown in Figure 3.18.

Figure 3.18: Water curing of samples

3.7. TESTING METHODS

In the following section, testing procedure to determine the following

properties of hardened concrete are presented and discussed:

 Density

 Compressive strength

 Ultrasonic pulse velocity

 Modulus of elasticity

 Sorpitivity
 45

3.7.1. Density Test

After preparing test specimens using compression casting technique and

conventional method, the weight and length of each sample were determined after 24

hours of casting to find the density of concrete.

3.7.2. Compressive Strength Test

Compressive strength tests were performed after 28 days of casting on

concrete samples. Displacement controlled compressive strength tests were performed

using Universal Testing Machine (UTM) of maximum loading capacity of 1000 kN at

a loading rate of 0.5 mm/min as shown in Figure 3.19.

Figure 3.19: Compression testing

3.7.3. Test for Modulus of Elasticity

To determine static elastic modulus (E) of concrete in compression, two strain

gages were pasted on the surface of each test specimen at 180° [as shown in Figure
 46

3.20] to record the longitudinal strain in the test specimen. For load value, load cell

of maximum 500 kN capacity was used. Strain gages and load cell were connected to

data acquisition system for data recording. Displacement controlled tests were

performed using UTM at loading rate of 0.5mm/min. Test setup is shown in Figure

3.21. To calculate the value of E from stress strain data, procedure specified in ASTM

standard C469 was followed which requires the value of the slope of the line on the

stress strain curve corresponding to following two points: 1st point corresponding to

50 μ-strain and 2nd point corresponding to stress equal to 40% of the peak stress.

Figure 3.20: Samples with strain gages for E value test

 47

Figure 3.21: Testing setup for E value in compression

3.7.4. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

The ultrasonic pulse velocity test was performed following ASTM C597. To

determine the Ultrasonic Pulse velocity (UPV) value of each test specimen, standard

UPV apparatus available in department of Civil Engineering was used which is shown

in Figure 3.22. As per standard procedure, time to travel the wave between transmitter

and receiver placed at the ends of specimen is measured using standard device and

then based on length of each specimen, UPV is calculated. This value is then used to

rate the quality of core concrete of test sample. The criteria regarding the quality of
 48

concrete based on UPV value as suggested by (Leslie and Cheeseman, 1949; R.F.

Feldman, 1977) has been used in this study for this purpose.

Figure 3.22: UPV testing device/apparatus

3.7.5. Sorptivity Test

Sorptivity test was conducted on the specimens to evaluate their water

absorption properties. The test was carried out as per ASTM C1585. However, the

size of the sample was different from the one mentioned in the Standard (ASTM

C1585, 2020). The side surfaces of the specimens were sealed with the help of the

epoxy and the top surfaces were covered with polythene sheet to avoid evaporation of

water. The prepared specimens are shown in Figure 3.23 and the testing arrangement
 49

is shown in Figure 3.24. The immersion depth of the specimen was kept as 3mm in

10% NaCl solution and the change in mass of the specimen (mt) from 0 seconds up to

the 8 day time was recorded with the help of a digital weighing balance. At each of

the time interval, the water absorbed (I) was calculated by using the following

relationship (ASTM C1585, 2020):

𝑚𝑡 Equation 3-1
𝐼=
𝑎×𝑑

Where,

I = Water absorbed in mm

mt = change in mass of the specimen in grams, at time t.

a = exposed surface area of the specimen in mm2

d = density of water in g/mm3

Finally after completion of the sorptivity test as per ASTM C1585; all samples

were kept immersed in 10% NaCl solution for 3 months and then weighed. Finally

these specimens were split into two pieces and the internal surfaces were sprayed with

0.1M Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) solution to observe the depth of salt penetration.

Figure 3.23: Prepared samples for Sorptivity test

 50

Figure 3.24: Testing arrangement for Sorptivity test

 51

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In this chapter, results of experimental work carried out in this study have been

presented and discussed. The effect of study parameters [aggregate type, casting

technique, cement content, fine to coarse aggregate ratio and casting pressure] on the

density, compressive strength, elastic modulus, ultrasonic pulse velocity and sorptivity of

different concrete mixes of natural and recycled aggregates investigated in this study has

been discussed in detail. As mentioned earlier, this study had been conducted in three

phases; therefore, the results of each phase are also presented separately.

4.1. PHASE-I

Experimental work in this phase was carried out to design RAC mix using

compression casting technique to be used in the manufacturing of masonry units (bricks)

of minimum 15MPa compressive strength at 28 days. Different concrete mixes prepared

using CCT and tested in this phase for their density and compressive strength have

already presented in Table 3-2 of chapter 3. The values of density and compressive

strength of concrete mixes investigated in this phase are graphically presented in Fig. 4.1

to Fig.4.8 and discussed in the following section.

4.1.1. Density

The weight and length of all test specimens were determined after 24 hours of

casting by Compression Casting Technique (CCT) to find their density and the results

[average of three samples] are presented in Figure 4.1 to Figure 4.4 along with minimum
 52

and maximum value of density obtained in each case and also cement content used

[i.e., 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%].

25MPa 35MPa 45MPa

3500
5% Cement
3000
Varies from 2042 kg/m3 to 2174 kg/m3
2500
Density (kg/m³)

2000
1500
1000
500
0
30F70C 40F60C 50F50C

Figure 4.1: Phase I - Density Values [5% cement]

25MPa 35MPa 45MPa

3500
10% Cement
3000
Varies from 2104 kg/m3 to 2200 kg/m3
2500
Density (kg/m³)

2000
1500
1000
500
0
30F70C 40F60C 50F50C

Figure 4.2: Phase I - Density Values [10% cement]

It may be noticed in these results that with the increase of applied pressure in

CCT from 25 MPa to 45 MPa, the density of resulting concrete was slightly increased.

Further, with the increase in quantity of fine aggregates in the mix, generally the density

of resulting mix was observed to be slightly increased at the same pressure value and

cement content. This is mainly attributed to the higher bulk density of fine aggregates as
 53

given in Table 3.1 of Chapter No. 3. Among 36 different concrete mixes of RAC,

maximum density of 2307 kg/m3 was exhibited by the test specimen prepared using

concrete mix containing 30% recycled fine aggregates, 70% recycled coarse aggregates,

20% cement and prepared by applying 45 MPa pressure. Regarding the effect of cement

content on the density, it was observed that increase in cement content from 5% to 20 %,

density of concrete was increased as expected due to more hydrated products formed

resulting in more dense microstructure of concrete matrix.

25MPa 35MPa 45MPa

3500
15% Cement
3000
Varies from 2156 kg/m3 to 2287 kg/m3
2500
Density (kg/m³)

2000
1500
1000
500
0
30F70C 40F60C 50F50C

Figure 4.3: Phase I - Density Values [15% cement]

25MPa 35MPa 45MPa

3500
20% Cement
3000
Varies from 2229 kg/m3 to 2307 kg/m3
2500
Density (kg/m³)

2000
1500
1000
500
0
30F70C 40F60C 50F50C

Figure 4.4: Phase I - Density Values [20% cement]

 54

4.1.2. Compressive Strength

Compressive strength values [average of three samples] at the age of 28 days of

concrete mixes prepared and tested in this phase [i.e. Phase-I] are graphically presented

in Figure 4.5 through Figure 4.8, where it may be observed that all mixes of RAC

prepared using 5%, 10% & 15% cement, at three different casting pressure [i.e., 25 MPa,

35 MPa & 45 MPa] and three different fine to coarse aggregates ratios were not able to

achieve the target compressive strength of 15 MPa at 28 days. However, test samples

prepared using RAC concrete mixes containing 20% cement with the exception of

30F70C and 50F50C mixes at 25 MPa applied pressure, were able to attain compressive

strength equal or greater than 15 MPa. The compressive strength value of 30F70C and

50F50C mixes at 25 MPa was found to be 8% and 5.3% lower, respectively when

compared to target compressive strength of 15 MPa. It is important to observe in figures

4.5 to 4.8 that in most of the cases, the compressive strength was increased with the

increase in casting pressure applied during sample preparation and also with the increase

of the cement content. It was noticed that at 25MPa and 35 MPa casting pressure,

maximum compressive strength of 17.4 MPa and 17.6 MPa, respectively was attained by

RAC mix 40F60C prepared using 20% cement, while at 45 MPa casting pressure,

maximum compressive strength of 19.7 MPa was achieved by RAC mix 30F60C

prepared using 20% cement.

It is obvious from the results that at 15% cement content, RAC mixes 30F70C and

40F60C exhibited compressive strength closer to target compressive strength of 15 MPa

at all casting pressure values. Based on this observation and also experimental

observation discussed in section of chapter 3 regarding expulsion of water during CCT as

 55

a result of excess water added to concrete due to higher water absorption of RAs, test

matrix for phase II testing program was designed which has already been presented Table

3.3 of chapter 3. In Phase-II, RAs were used in SSD condition and accordingly no extra

water other than required for hydration and workability was added during mixing.

30
5% Cement 25MPa 35MPa 45MPa
25
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Target Strength = 15 MPa

20

15

10

5 3.6 3.9 3.8 3.9 3.1 3.6

2.9 2.9 2.9

0
30F70C 40F60C 50F50C

Figure 4.5: Phase-I - Compressive strength [5% cement]

30
10% Cement
25
Compressive Strength (MPa)

20
Target Strength = 15 MPa

15

10 7.2 7.9 8.2 8.4

6.8 6.1 6.3
5.8 5.7
5

0
30F70C 40F60C 50F50C

Figure 4.6: Phase-I - Compressive strength [10% cement]

 56

30
15% Cement
25

Compressive Strength (MPa)

Target Strength = 15 MPa
20
14.5 13.9
15 12.9 12.2
13.2
11.2 11.3 10.7
9.5
10

0
30F70C 40F60C 50F50C
Figure 4.7: Phase-I - Compressive strength [15% cement]

30
20% Cement 25MPa 35MPa 45MPa
25
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Target Strength = 15 MPa

19.7
20 17.4 17.6 17.9 17.9
16.9
15.1
13.8 14.2
15

10

0
30F70C 40F60C 50F50C
Figure 4.8: Phase-I - Compressive strength [20% cement]

4.1.3. Relationship between Density and Compressive Strength

Based on the results obtained, a relationship in the form of Equation 4-1 between

density and compressive strength for compressed RAC has been proposed using linear
 57

regression analysis which is shown in Figure 4.9. In Equation 4-1, α and β are

regression coefficients, fc’ is the compressive strength in MPa, and ρ is the mass density

in kg/m3.

𝑓 = 𝛼𝜌 + 𝛽 Equation 4-1

The values of constants α and β are 0.0798 and -165.18, respectively with a

correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.822 as shown in Figure 4.9. As a result, the relationship

between compressive strength and mass density of RAC prepared using compression

casting technique is given in Equation 4-2:

𝑓 = 0.08𝜌 − 165 Equation 4-2

25

20 y = 0.0798x - 165.18
Compressive Strength (MPa)

R² = 0.8222

15

10

0
2000 2080 2160 2240 2320 2400
Density (Kg/m³)
Figure 4.9: Phase-I: Relationship between compressive strength and density
 58

4.2. PHASE-II

As mentioned earlier, in this phase the coarse recycled aggregates were used in

SSD condition. Two RAC mixes [i.e., 30F70C & 40F60C] at three pressure values [i.e.,

25 MPa, 35 MPa & 45 MPa] and two cement contents [i.e., 10% and 15%] were studied

in this phase. Further, in this phase samples with aspect ratio 1 along with aspect ratio 2

were tested to study the effect of aspect ratio on the compressive strength of compressed

concrete. In addition to this, samples were also casted using NAC mixes under same

conditions of casting pressure and cement contents. In order to study the effect of casting

technique, RAC samples were also casted using conventional method of compaction i.e.,

vibration.

In the following section, results of the following properties of hardened concrete

are presented and discussed:

 Density

 Compressive strength

 Ultrasonic pulse velocity

 Modulus of elasticity in compression

 Sorpitivity

4.2.1. Density

Density values of RAC and NAC tested in this phase are presented in Figure 4.10

and Figure 4.11, respectively. It can be observed that, the density values of NAC are

higher than RAC due to the fact that natural aggregates have higher bulk density than

recycled aggregates as presented in Table 3.1 of Chapter No. 3. As mentioned earlier that
 59

the RAC samples were also prepared using conventional method of casting [i.e.,

vibration] and their density results are also presented in Figure 4.10. The positive impact

of CCT on density is evident from these results as the density values of vibrated RAC are

slightly lesser than that of RAC prepared by CCT at casting pressure of 45 MPa.

However, at 25 MPa casting pressure, density of vibrated RAC samples were slightly

greater than that of RAC samples prepared by CCT. In case of 35 MPa pressure, the

density of vibrated RAC samples having mix ratio 30F70C was slightly lesser than that of

samples prepared by CCT. Whereas for mix 40F60C, the density of vibrated RAC was

slightly greater than that of samples casted under compression.

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated

3500
3000
Density (kg/m³)

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
10% Cement 10% Cement 15% Cement 15% Cement
RAC-30F70C RAC-40F60C RAC-30F70C RAC-40F60C

Figure 4.10: Phase-II: Density values of RAC

 60

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

3500
3000
Density (kg/m³)

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
10% Cement 10% Cement 15% Cement 15% Cement
NAC-30F70C NAC-40F60C NAC-30F70C NAC-40F60C

Figure 4.11: Phase-II: Density values of NAC

4.2.2. Compressive Strength

Compressive strength attained by test samples of aspect ratio 1 & 2 and made

using RAC and NAC by CCT and conventional method of casting of all the mixes are

presented in Figure 4.12 through Figure 4.15. For the RAC and NAC mixes containing

30% fine aggregates & 70% coarse aggregates [30F70C] and 10% cement, it is clear

from their results, presented in Figure 4.12 that except samples of NAC mix having

aspect ratio of 1 and prepared under 45 MPa casting pressure, no specimen was able to

attain the target compressive strength of 15 MPa. Further, it may be observed that

concrete mixes made using natural aggregates exhibited higher strength as compared to

mixes prepared using recycled aggregates. Similar to phase-I testing results, compressive

strength of RAC was increased with the increase of pressure applied while preparing the

samples by CCT and using RA in SSD conditions.

For concrete mix 30F70C with 15% cement, all test samples except samples of

RAC mix prepared under 45 MPa pressure were able to attain the target compressive
 61

strength of 15 MPa at 28 days as shown in Figure 4.13. The loss in strength at 45 MPa

casting pressure was due to the expulsion of water during preparation which resulted in

lower effective w/c ratio. Effect of sample aspect ratio on the compressive strength is

also evident in these results. It is expected that masonry units [bricks] manufactured using

such RAC mixes will perform satisfactorily with respect to strength requirement because

of their lesser aspect ratio which is 0.67.

From the results of mix 40F60C having 10% cement, presented in Figure 4.14, it

is evident that test sample with aspect ratio 1 and prepared using RAC mixes showed

higher compressive strength compared to their corresponding test samples having aspect

ratio of 2. Among different concrete mixes, tests samples of RAC and NAC mix having

aspect ratio of 1 and prepared under 35 MPa and 45 MPa pressures were able to attain

required compressive strength.

For the mix having 40% fine aggregate & 60% coarse aggregate [40F60C] and

15% cement, the results presented in Figure 4.15 shows that all mixes of RAC and NAC

were able to attain the target compressive strength of 15 MPa at 28 days.

Compressive strength of test samples having aspect ratio 1 and 2 of all RAC

mixes prepared by CCT and compaction through vibration are also presented in Figure

4.12 through 4.15. It may be observed from these results that vibrated RAC mixes were

not able attain strength equal or greater than RAC mixes prepared by CCT in all cases.

The positive impact of compression casting technique on compressive strength is evident

from these results.

Regarding objective number 1 of this study related to the mix design of 100%

RAC having compressive strength of 15 MPa at 28 days to be used in the manufacturing

 62

of masonry units (bricks), the target compressive strength of 15 MPa may be obtain

using mix 30F70C having 15% cement and 25 MPa casting pressure as highlighted in

Figure 4.13. Similarly, for mix 40F60C, the target strength of 15 MPa was achieved at

10% cement content and 35 MPa of casting pressure as highlighted in Figure 4.14.

RAC-30F70C NAC-30F70C
35
10% Cement
30
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Target Strength = 15 MPa

25
20 Aspect Ratio = 2 Aspect Ratio = 1
15
10 RAC
RAC
5
0
25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated

Figure 4.12: Phase II - Compressive strength of mix 30F70 [10% Cement]

RAC-30F70C NAC-30F70C
35
15% Cement Aspect Ratio = 1
30
Compressive Strength (MPa)

25 Aspect Ratio = 2
20
RAC
15
RAC
10
5
0
25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated

Figure 4.13: Phase II - Compressive strength of mix 30F70 [15% Cement]

 63

RAC-40F60C NAC-40F60C
35
30
10% Cement
Compressive Strength (MPa)
25
Aspect Ratio = 1
20 Aspect Ratio = 2
RAC RAC
15
10
5
0
25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated

Figure 4.14: Phase II - Compressive strength of mix 40F60 [10% Cement]

RAC-40F60C NAC-40F60C
35
30
15% Cement
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Aspect Ratio = 1
25 Aspect Ratio = 2
20
RAC RAC
15
10
5
0
25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated

Figure 4.15: Phase II - Compressive strength of mix 40F60 [15% Cement]

4.2.3. Relationship between Compressive Strength and Density

Similar to phase 1, based on all the results of density and compressive strength of

Phase-II testing, relationships between compressive strength and density for aspect ratio
 64

of 1 and 2 were obtained and are shown in Figure 4.16 and Figure 4.17, respectively. A

relationship in the form of Equation 4-1 as discussed earlier in section 4.1.3 between

density and compressive strength for RAC and NAC has been proposed using linear

regression analysis. For the aspect ratio of 2 the linear relationships for RAC and NAC

are presented in Equation 4-3 and Equation 4-4 respectively and graphically presented in

Figure 4.16.

For RAC samples having aspect ratio of 2, the values of constants α and β are

0.062 and -123.23, respectively with a correlation coefficient of R 2 = 0.815 as shown in

Figure 4.16. As a result, the relationship between compressive strength and mass density

of RAC prepared using compression casting technique is given as:

𝑓 = 0.06𝜌 − 123 Equation 4-3

Similarly, for NAC samples having an aspect ratio of 2, the values of constants α

and β are 0.0892 and -192.49, respectively with a correlation coefficient of R 2 = 0.809 as

shown in Figure 4.16. As a result, the relationship between compressive strength and

mass density

of NAC prepared using compression casting technique is given as:

𝑓 = 0.09𝜌 − 192 Equation 4-4

It can be seen that the density values of NAC are higher than that of RAC. This is due to

the reason that the particle density of natural aggregate is greater than that of recycled

aggregate as presented in Table 3.1 of chapter 3.

 65

Recycled Aggregate Concrete Natural Aggregate Concrete

35

Compressive Strength (MPa)

30
25
20 y = 0.062x - 123.23
15 R² = 0.8148

10 y = 0.0892x - 192.49
5 R² = 0.8087

0
2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Density (kg/m³)

Figure 4.16: Phase-II- Relationship between compressive strength and density [A.R = 2]

Similarly, for the aspect ratio of 1, the linear relationships for RAC and NAC are

presented in Equation 4-5 and Equation 4-6 respectively and graphically presented in

Figure 4.17.

For RAC samples having aspect ratio of 1, the values of constants α and β are

0.081 and -158.13, respectively with a correlation coefficient of R 2 = 0.837 as shown in

Figure 4.17. As a result, the relationship between compressive strength and mass density

of RAC prepared using compression casting technique is given as:

𝑓 = 0.08𝜌 − 154 Equation 4-5

Similarly, for NAC samples having an aspect ratio of 1, the values of constants α

and β are 0.168 and -379.04, respectively with a correlation coefficient of R 2 = 0.841 as

shown in Figure 4.17. As a result, the relationship between compressive strength and

mass density

of NAC prepared using compression casting technique is given as:

𝑓 = 0.17𝜌 − 379 Equation 4-6

 66

Recycled Aggregate Concrete Natural Aggregate Concrete

35

Compressive Strength (MPa)

30
y = 0.0809x - 158.13
25
R² = 0.837
20
15
10 y = 0.1684x - 379.04
R² = 0.8408
5
0
2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Density (kg/m )
3

Figure 4.17: Phase-II- Relationship between compressive strength and density [A.R = 1]

4.2.4. Modulus of Elasticity, E

To determine the elastic modulus value in compression experimentally, strain

gages were pasted on the surface of samples at 180° [of aspect ratio 2] tested in

compression to find longitudinal compressive strain. From stress strain data, modulus of

elasticity was calculated using method described in ASTM C469 for test specimens of

RAC as well as NAC prepared by CCT compacted at three pressure values [i.e., 25 MPa,

35 MPa and 45MPa] which have been presented graphically in Figure 4.18 and in Figure

4.19 for 10% cement content and 15% cement content respectively. It may be noted from

these results that with the increase of casting pressure from 25 MPa to 45 MPa and

cement content from 10% to 15%, the modulus of elasticity was observed to be increased.

For RAC, the highest elastic modulus value of 21.47 GPa was obtained using mix

30F70C having 15% cement and casted under 45 MPa casting pressure. The modulus of

elasticity of RAC samples casted by conventional technique are also presented in the
 67

same figure. It may be noted that vibrated RAC samples have the least modulus of

elasticity. Based on this observation, the positive effect of CCT on modulus of elasticity

is evident. It may be noted that, NACs have highest modulus of elasticity in all

compositions which are in line with the compressive strength results presented in section

4.2.2.

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa RAC-Vibrated

40
35 10% Cement
(GPa)
of Elasticity (MPa)

30
ModulusModulus

25
20
15
Elastic

10
5
0
RAC-30F70C NAC-30F70C RAC-40F60C NAC-40F60C

Figure 4.18: Phase II- Modulus of elasticity [10% Cement]

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa RAC-Vibrated

40
35 15% Cement
of Elasticity (GPa)
(MPa)

30
25
ModulusModulus

20
15
Elastic

10
5
0
RAC-30F70C NAC-30F70C RAC-40F60C NAC-40F60C

Figure 4.19: Phase II- Modulus of elasticity [15% Cement]

 68

4.2.5. Relation between Compressive Strength and Modulus of Elasticity

The linear elastic stress-strain relationship is particularly essential in both the

static and dynamic analysis of reinforced concrete structures, and it is reflected by the

elastic modulus of concrete (Xiao, 2006). Various investigators have proposed different

equations for defining the relationship between the elastic modulus and the compressive

strength of recycled aggregate concrete prepared using conventional method of

compaction in the past and few of them are listed in the table 4-1:

Table 4-1: Relation between E and fc’ - Proposed Equations in Literature

Casting Technique and

Sr. # Reference Proposed Equation
Aggregate Type

Conventional casting using

𝟎.𝟔𝟑
1 Antonio et al. (2010) 𝑬 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝒇′𝒄
recycled aggregates

𝟎.𝟑𝟑
Conventional casting using
2 Ravindrarajah et al. (1985) 𝑬 = 𝟕. 𝟕𝟕 × 𝒇′𝒄
recycled aggregates

𝟎.𝟓 Conventional casting using

3 Antonio et al. (2010) 𝑬 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝒇′𝒄
natural aggregates

𝒇′𝒄
𝟎.𝟑 Conventional casting using
4 Eurocode 2 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟐 ×
𝟏𝟎
natural aggregates

Conventional casting using

5 ACI 318-14 𝑬 = 𝟒. 𝟕 × 𝒇′𝒄
𝟎.𝟓

natural aggregates
 69

A relationship of the form shown in equation 4-6 between compressive strength

and modulus of elasticity results for RAC and NAC obtained in this study using power

regression analysis is proposed.

𝐸 = 𝛼𝑓 Equation 4-6

In this equation, α and β are regression coefficients, fc’ is the compressive strength

in MPa, and E is modulus of elasticity of the recycled concrete in GPa. For RAC, the

value of regression coefficient α is 4.35 while β is 0.44 and a correlation coefficient of R 2

= 0.90. Using the values of α & β in equation 4-6, for RAC the form of relationship

between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity is given in equation 4-7:

.
𝐸 = 4.35 × 𝑓 Equation 4-7

Similarly, for NAC, the value of regression coefficient α is 0.63 while β is 1.05

and a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.89. Using the values of α & β in equation 4-6, for

NAC the form of relationship between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity is

given in equation 4-8

.
𝐸 = 0.63 × 𝑓 Equation 4-8
 70

RAC NAC
30

(MPa)
25
of Elasticity(GPa)
20 y = 4.35x0.44
Elastic Modulus

R² = 0.90
15
10
Modulus

y = 0.63x1.05
5 R² = 0.89

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Figure 4.20: Phase II- Proposed relationship between f c’ and E [RAC and NAC]

The relationship between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity by

different codes and researchers in the past for vibrated RAC given in Table 4-1 along

with proposed relationship have been plotted and presented in Figure 4.21. As can be

seen, the findings have a significant amount of variation. The major explanation for the

inconsistencies is the method of casting. All these equations are proposed for concrete

casted under conventional method of compaction. However the proposed equations of

this study is for recycled aggregate concrete casted using compression casting technique.

Moreover, the referenced author(s) presented his/her equation only to best match his/her

own experimental results. However, some of the stated results are based on a small

number of test specimens or specific types of recycled aggregates, and some of the

recommended equations are inconsistent with the experimental data.

 71

Proposed Eq ACI 318

Eurocode 2 Cabral et al (2010) for RAC
Xiao et al (2006) for RAC Cabral et al (2010) for NAC
30

24
Elastic Modulus (GPa)

18

12

6
0 5 10 15 20 25
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Figure 4.21: Phase II- Comparison of relation between f c’ and E with Literature

4.2.6. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)

Values of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) of RAC and NAC samples prepared

by CCT are presented in Table 4-2. The criteria regarding the quality of concrete based

on UPV value as suggested by (Leslie and Cheeseman, 1949; R.F. Feldman, 1977) has

been used in this study. Accordingly, quality of various RAC and NAC mixes is given in

table. It is important to note that this suggested criterion for concrete quality is for

vibrated concrete. The same has been employed here to access the quality of compressed

concrete. It is suggested that in future extensive experimental study should be carried out

to design criterion to check the quality of compressed recycled aggregate concrete based

on ultrasonic pulse velocity value. Further, in Table 4-2, it may be noticed that except for
 72

three cases [RAC-30F70C-10%C-25MPa, RAC-30F70C-10%C-35MPa and RAC-

30F70C-15%C-45MPa], the quality of RAC mixes prepared by CCT and compaction

through vibration is ranked as good while for NAC samples, it is good or excellent. For

RAC mixes where quality is questionable, the compressive strength attained by such

mixes was also low [refer to results presented in Figure 4.5].

 73

Table 4-2: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test Results in Phase-II

Sr. No Composition Aggregate Type Cement Content Pressure UPV (km/s) Quality

1 25 MPa 4.443 Good

NAC-30F70C-
2 Natural 35 MPa 4.463 Good
10%C
3 45 MPa 4.602 Excellent
4 25 MPa 3.337 Questionable
RAC-30F70C-
5 Recycled 35 MPa 3.573 Questionable
10%C
6 10% by weight of 45 MPa 3.646 Good
7 aggregates 25 MPa 3.804 Good
NAC-40F60C-
8 Natural 35 MPa 3.814 Good
10%C
9 45 MPa 3.969 Good
10 25 MPa 3.890 Good
RAC-40F60C-
11 Recycled 35 MPa 4.091 Good
10%C
12 45 MPa 4.104 Good
13 25 MPa 4.504 Excellent
NAC-30F70C-
14 Natural 35 MPa 4.626 Excellent
15%C
15 45 MPa 4.716 Excellent
16 25 MPa 4.053 Good
RAC-30F70C-
17 Recycled 35 MPa 4.215 Good
15%C
18 15% by weight of 45 MPa 3.580 Questionable
19 aggregates 25 MPa 4.185 Good
NAC-40F60C-
20 Natural 35 MPa 4.234 Good
15%C
21 45 MPa 4.285 Good
22 25 MPa 4.369 Good
RAC-40F60C-
23 Recycled 35 MPa 4.452 Good
15%C
24 45 MPa 4.066 Good
RAC-30F70C- Good
25 3.791
10%C
10% by weight of Vibrated
Recycled Good
RAC-40F60C- aggregates Concrete
26 3.831
10%C

RAC-30F70C- 15% by weight of Vibrated Good

27 Recycled 3.995
15%C aggregates Concrete
RAC-40F60C- 15% by weight of Vibrated Good
28 Recycled 3.890
15%C aggregates Concrete
 74

4.2.7. Relationship between Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity and Compressive Strength

Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing is majorly used to assess the quality of the

concrete but many researchers have also developed relationships between ultrasonic pulse

velocity and compressive strength of the concrete. Such proposed relationships may be

helpful in determining the compressive strength of concrete based on ultrasonic pulse

velocity testing in the field. According to Breysse (2012), compressive strength and

ultrasonic pulse velocity is co-related based on the following non-linear model presented

in equation 4-9:

𝑓 = 𝛼 × 𝑈𝑃𝑉 Equation 4-9

Where, fc’ is concrete compressive strength in MPa, UPV is ultrasonic pulse

velocity value of concrete in km/sec and α & β are the regression analysis co-efficient. In

this study, all the results of compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity for RAC

and NAC have been plotted and shown in Figure 4.22 and power regression analysis was

done to obtain power relationship between compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse

velocity. The value of α & β was found to be 0.004 and 5.820 respectively for RAC and a

regression co-efficient of 0.916. Hence, to assess compressive strength of compressed

recycled aggregate concrete based on UPV value, the power relationship proposed in this

study is presented in equation 4-10:

.
𝑓 = 0.004 × 𝑈𝑃𝑉 Equation 4-10

Similarly, for NAC the value of α & β was found to be 0.019 and 4.539

respectively with a regression co-efficient of 0.837. Therefore, to assess compressive

strength of compressed recycled aggregate concrete based on UPV value, the power

relationship proposed in this study is presented in equation 4-10:

 75
.
𝑓 = 0.02 × 𝑈𝑃𝑉 Equation 4-10

RAC NAC
25
Compressive Strength, MPa

20

15 y = 0.004x5.820
R² = 0.916 y = 0.019x4.539
10 R² = 0.837
5

0
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (km/sec)

Figure 4.22: Phase II - Relationship between UPV and f c’ [RAC and NAC]

4.2.8. Relationship between Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity and Modulus of Elasticity

Based on the results of ultrasonic pulse velocity and modulus of elasticity, a

relationship between them is proposed and shown in figure 4.23. A power regression

analysis was used to find the empirical relationship between ultrasonic pulse velocity and

elastic modulus of concrete. The resulting relationship is of the form as shown in

equation 4-11 is presented in:

𝐸 = 𝛼 × 𝑈𝑃𝑉 Equation 4-11

Where, α and β are regression coefficients, E is Modulus of Elasticity in GPa, and

UPV is ultrasonic pulse velocity in km/sec. For RAC, the constants α and β are 0.401 and

2.55 respectively, with a correlation coefficient of R 2 = 0.901. As a result, the

 76

relationship between modulus of elasticity and ultrasonic pulse velocity of recycled

aggregate concrete is presented in equation 4-12:

.
𝐸 = 0.4 × 𝑈𝑃𝑉 Equation 4-12

Similarly, For NAC, the constants α and β are 0.06 and 3.954 respectively, with a

correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.877. As a result, the relationship between modulus of

elasticity and ultrasonic pulse velocity of NAC is presented in equation 4-13:

.
𝐸 = 0.06 × 𝑈𝑃𝑉 Equation 4-13

RAC NAC
30
of Elasticity (GPa)
(MPa)

25 y = 0.060x3.945
R² = 0.877
20
Elastic Modulus

15
10
Modulus

5 y = 0.401x2.550
R² = 0.901
0
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (km/sec)

Figure 4.23: Phase II - Relationship between E and UPV [RAC and NAC]

4.2.9. Sorptivity Testing

Sorptivity test was performed as per ASTM C1585 to investigate water absorption

characteristics of RAC as well as NAC casted using conventional casting technique and

through conventional method of casting. In the following section, results of this test are

presented in detail.
 77

Water Absorption of Concrete

In the following section, the effect of parameters such as casting technique,

casting pressure and aggregate type on the water absorption characteristics of 100% RAC

have been discussed.

a) Effect of Casting Technique

Variation of water absorption with time of concrete mixes prepared by using

100% RAs and tested as per ASTM C1585 are graphically presented in Figure 4.24 to

4.27, where it may be observed that for all mixes compression casting technique showed

a positive impact on the water absorption properties of the concrete mixes as the

sorptivity of concrete mixes casted by pressure was found to be significantly lesser than

that of concrete mixes casted under conventional vibration. For mix 40F60C at 15%

cement content and 45 MPa casting pressure, the water absorption after 8 days was

observed to be 48% lesser than that of its corresponding vibrated concrete. It can be seen

in Figure 4.24 and Figure 4.25 that with the increasing cement content from 10% to 15%,

the sorptivity of compacted concrete was decreased at all casting pressure values which

resulted in higher difference in value of absorbed water when compared to sorptivity of

vibrated concrete samples.

In Figure 4.24 to Figure 4.27, it can be noticed that with the increase of casting

pressure, the sorptivity of the resulting concrete was decreased. However, the effect of

casting pressure at 10% cement content was less than at 15% cement. This is due to the

reason that at greater cement content, better compaction was achieved due to the presence

of more water to keep the w/c ratio same as discussed earlier. As evident in the Figure

4.24 to Figure 4.27, for both mix ratios i.e. 30F70C and 40F60C, it may be observed that
 78

with the increase of the cement content from 10% to 15%, the sorptivity of the

resulting concrete was decreased. The sorptivity of 30F70C casted under 45 MPa

pressure and at 15% cement was found to be 34% lesser than that of mix containing 10%

cement under same conditions.

Furthermore, with the decrease of the coarse contents from 70% to 60%, the sorptivity of

the resulting concrete was decreased. This may be attributed to the fact that, coarse

aggregate are more porous and with increasing fine contents, better compaction was

achieved under pressure. At 15% cement, the water absorption of 40F60C was found to

be 13% less than 30F70C at 45 MPa pressure.

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated

18

15 30F70C --10% Cement

Water Absorption (mm)

12

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s1/2)
Figure 4.24: Effect of casting technique on water absorption [30F70C at 10% Cement]
 79

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated

18

Water Absorption (mm) 15 30F70C --15% Cement

12

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s1/2)

Figure 4.25: Effect of casting technique on water absorption [30F70C at 15% cement]

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated

18
40F60C --10% Cement
15
Water Absorption (mm)

12

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s )
1/2

Figure 4.26: Effect of casting technique on water absorption [40F60C at 10% cement]
 80

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa Vibrated

18
40F60C --15% Cement
Water Absorption (mm) 15

12

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s1/2)
Figure 4.27: Effect of casting technique on water absorption [40F60C at 15% cement]

b) Effect of Aggregate Type

The water absorption of compressed concrete mixes containing 100% RAs was

compared with compressed concrete mixes containing 100% NAs and the results are

presented in Figure 4.28 and Figure 4.29. It can be observed in these figures that under

same conditions, the sorptivity of compressed concrete mixes containing 100% RAs is

significantly greater than compressed concrete mixes containing 100% NAs. This is due

to the porous nature of RAs as compared to NAs as evident from the water absorption

value of RA and NA given in Table 3-1 of Chapter 3. Further, with the decrease in

coarse aggregate content in concrete mixes, the difference between water absorption of

RAC and NAC was reduced. Under same conditions, the sorptivity of RAC mix 30F70C

was 86.5% more than NAC, whereas for 40F60C it was 68% more than NAC.
 81

RAC NAC
10

8
30F70C --15% Cement-45 MPa

Water Absorption (mm) 6

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
T ime (s )
1/2

Figure 4.28: Effect of aggregate type on water absorption [30F70C at 15% cement]

RAC NAC
10

8
40F60C --15% Cement-45 MPa
Water Absorption (mm)

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s1/2 )

Figure 4.29: Effect of aggregate type on water absorption [40F60C at 15% cement]
 82

c) Water Absorption after 3 months

As mentioned earlier, after completion of sorptivity test, the RAC and NAC

samples were kept in 10% NaCl solution to determine their long term water absorption

and the results are shown in Figure 4.30 and 4.31 for RAC and NAC samples having 10%

cement and 15% cement respectively. It has been observed from these results that with

increasing casting pressure and cement content the water absorption of the concrete

samples decreases. Moreover, vibrated RAC concrete samples showed the most sorptivity

in all the cases which showed the positive impact of CCT as well.

Figure 4.30: Water Absorption after 3 months [10% Cement]

 83

Figure 4.31: Water Absorption after 3 months [15% Cement]

Initial Rate of Water Absorption

To calculate the initial rate of absorption, the water absorbed up to 6 hours was

plotted against square root of time. Linear regression analysis was performed and initial

rate of water absorption was equal to the slope of the resulting plot. The effect of

parameters such as casting technique, casting pressure and aggregate type on the Initial

rate of water absorption characteristics of 100% RAC have been discussed in the

following section.

a) Effect of Casting Pressure

The initial rate of water absorption of 100% RAC casted under three different

casting pressures are presented graphically in Figure 4.32 to Figure 4.35 where slope of

the line indicated the initial rate of water absorption. From these results it can be

observed that the initial rate of water absorption was decreased when the casting pressure
 84

was increased from 25 MPa to 45 MPa. For 30F70C and 40F60C mix ratios, with the

increase of the cement content from 10% to 15%, the initial rate of water absorption was

decreased at similar conditions of casting pressure due to better compaction as discussed

earlier. For 30F70C mix at 45 MPa casting pressure, the initial rate of absorption was

decreased by 33% when cement was increased from 10% to 15%. Similarly, for 40F60C

mix it was decreased by 13%. Moreover at similar conditions with respect to cement

content and casting pressure, with the decrease in the coarse contents of recycled

aggregates, the initial rate of absorption was also decreased. At 15% cement and 45 MPa

pressure, the initial absorption was decreased by 5% when mix ratio was changed from

30F70C to 40F60C.

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

12
30F70C --10% Cement y = 0.035x + 0.793
R² = 0.984
Water Absorption (mm

9
y = 0.032x + 0.906
R² = 0.992
6 y = 0.030x + 0.539
R² = 0.993
3

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (s1/2)
Figure 4.32: Effect of casting pressure on initial rate of absorption [30F70C at 10%
cement]
 85

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

12
30F70C --15% Cement y = 0.026x + 0.281
Water Absorption (mm) R² = 0.997
9
y = 0.022x + 0.344
R² = 0.994
6
y = 0.020x + 0.257
R² = 0.995
3

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (s1/2)
Figure 4.33: Effect of casting pressure on initial rate of absorption [30F70C at 15%
cement]

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

12
40F60C --10% Cement y = 0.026x + 1.092
Water Absorption (mm)

R² = 0.982
9
y = 0.024x + 0.890
6 R² = 0.983
y = 0.023x + 0.666
R² = 0.991
3

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (s1/2)
Figure 4.34: Effect of casting pressure on initial rate of absorption [40F60C at 10%
cement]
 86

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

12
40F60C --15% Cement y = 0.025x + 0.972
Water Absorption (mm) R² = 0.988
9
y = 0.021x + 0.428
6 R² = 0.993
y = 0.019x + 0.285
R² = 0.982
3

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (s1/2)
Figure 4.35: Effect of casting pressure on initial rate of absorption [40F60C at 10%
cement]

b) Effect of Casting Technique

The initial rate of water absorption of 100% RAC casted under compression and

under conventional casting was compared and graphically presented in Figure 4.36 and

Figure 4.37 for mixes 30F70C-15%C and 40F60C-15%C respectively. It can be observed

from these results that, compression casting technique has significant positive impact on

the initial rate of absorption of concrete mixes. The initial rate of absorption of 100%

compressed RAC was significantly lesser than 100% vibrated RAC for all the mix ratios.

Compared to compression casting, for 30F70C mix with 15% cement, the initial rate of

absorption was increased by 80% when casted by conventional method of casting using

vibration. Similarly, for vibrated 40F60C, it was increased by 74% when compared to its

corresponding compressed mix.

 87

Compression (45 MPa) Vibration

12
y = 0.036x + 0.632
10 30F70C --15% Cement R² = 0.981
Water Absorption (mm)
8 y = 0.020x + 0.257
R² = 0.995
6
4
2
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (s1/2 )

Figure 4.36: Effect of casting technique on initial rate of absorption [30F70C at 15%
cement]

Compression (45 MPa) Vibration

12
y = 0.033x + 0.652
10 40F60C --15% Cement R² = 0.987
Water Absorption (mm)

8 y = 0.019x + 0.285
R² = 0.982
6
4
2
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (s )
1/2

Figure 4.37: Effect of casting technique on initial rate of absorption [40F60C at 15%
cement]
 88

c) Effect of Aggregate Type

The initial rate of water absorption of compressed concrete mixes containing

100% RAs was compared with compressed concrete mixes containing 100 NAs and is

presented in Figure 4.38 and Figure 4.39. From the graphs, it is obvious that, 100%

compressed RAC exhibited higher initial rate of absorption than that of 100%

compressed NAC. This is due to the fact that the water absorption of recycled aggregates

is significantly greater than natural aggregates as highlighted in properties table earlier

[shown in Table 3.1]. Further, with the decrease in coarse aggregate content in concrete

mixes, the difference between water absorption of RAC and NAC was reduced. Under

same conditions of casting pressure and cement content, for 30F70C, the initial rate of

water absorption of RAC was 54% more than NAC, whereas for 40F60C it was 73%

more than NAC. This is attributed to the fact that the water absorption of coarse

aggregates is more than that of fine aggregates.

RAC NAC
12
10 30F70C --15% Cement-45 MPa
Water Absorption (mm)

y = 0.020x + 0.257
8 R² = 0.995
6 y = 0.013x + 0.356
R² = 0.981
4
2
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (s )
1/2

Figure 4.38: Effect of aggregate type on initial rate of absorption [30F70C at 15%
cement]
 89

RAC NAC
12
10 40F60C --15% Cement-45 MPa

Water Absorption (mm) 8 y = 0.019x + 0.285

R² = 0.982
6 y = 0.011x + 0.306
4 R² = 0.989

2
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (s )
1/2

Figure 4.39: Effect of aggregate type on initial rate of absorption [40F60C at 15%
cement]

Secondary Rate of Water Absorption

The water absorbed from day 1 to day 8 was plotted against square root of time to

calculate the secondary rate of absorption. The secondary rate of water absorption is

equal to the slope of the resulting graph after linear regression analysis. The effect of

casting pressure, casting technique and aggregate type on secondary rate of water

absorption is described as under:

Figure 4.40 through Figure 4.43 show the rate of water absorption of 100% RAC

casted under three different casting pressures from day one to day eight. The results

presented in Figure 4.40 to 4.43 indicated that secondary rate of water absorption was

reduced when the casting pressure was increased from 25 MPa to 45 MPa. Further, at

similar conditions of casting pressure and cement content, the secondary rate of water

absorption was reduced with an increase in cement content from 10% to 15% for both

mix ratios. When the cement content was increased from 10% to 15% for 30F70C at 45
 90

MPa casting pressure, the secondary rate of absorption was droped by 20%. Similarly,

for 40F60C it was reduced by 25%. Furthermore, given for similar cement content and

casting pressure, the secondary rate of absorption was reduced as the amount of coarse

aggregate was decreased. Compared to mix 30F70C, the secondary rate of absorption for

40f60C was reduced by 17% at 15% cement and 45 MPa casting pressure.

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

18
y = 0.007x + 6.771
15 30F70C --10% Cement R² = 0.983
Water Absorption (mm

12
9
y = 0.006x + 6.842
6 R² = 0.984
3 y = 0.005x + 6.718
R² = 0.981
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s1/2)

Figure 4.40: Effect of casting pressure on secondary rate of water absorption [30F70C at
10% cement]
 91

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

18
y = 0.006x + 4.674
Water Absorption (mm) 15 30F70C --15% Cement R² = 0.985
12 y = 0.005x + 3.995
R² = 0.986
9
6
y = 0.004x + 4.077
3 R² = 0.995
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s1/2)
Figure 4.41: Effect of casting pressure on secondary rate of water absorption [30F70C at
15% cement]

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

18
40F60C --10% Cement y = 0.005x + 5.889
15
Water Absorption (mm)

R² = 0.992
12
9
y = 0.004x + 5.887
6 R² = 0.996
3 y = 0.004x + 6.166
R² = 0.987
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s1/2)
Figure 4.42: Effect of casting pressure on secondary rate of water absorption [40F60C at
10% cement]
 92

25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

18
y = 0.005x + 5.273
Water Absorption (mm) 15 40F60C --15% Cement R² = 0.990
12 y = 0.004x + 4.466
R² = 0.991
9
6
3 y = 0.003x + 3.854
R² = 0.984
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s1/2)
Figure 4.43: Effect of casting pressure on secondary rate of water absorption [40F60C at
15% Cement]

Figure 4.44 and Figure 4.45 compare the rate of water absorption of 100 percent

RAC casted by CCT and conventional casting (compaction through vibration) from day 1

to day 8. From these figures, it can be observed that the compression casting process has

a positive impact on the secondary rate of absorption of concrete mixes. For all mix

ratios, the secondary rate of absorption of 100% compressed RAC was observed to be

much lower than that of 100% vibrated RAC. For vibrated samples of mix 30F70C, the

secondary rate of absorption was increased by 100% as compared to samples prepared by

CCT. Similarly, for 40F60C, it was found to be increased by 67%.

 93

Compression (45 MPa) Vibration

18

15 30F70C --15% Cement

Water Absorption (mm) 12

y = 0.008x + 7.002
9 R² = 0.982
6
y = 0.004x + 4.077
3 R² = 0.995
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s1/2)

Figure 4.44: Effect of casting technique on secondary rate of water absorption [30F70C at
15% cement]

Compression (45 MPa) Vibration

18

15 40F60C --15% Cement

Water Absorption (mm)

12

9 y = 0.005x + 7.858
R² = 0.988
6

3 y = 0.003x + 3.854
R² = 0.984
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
T ime (s )
1/2

Figure 4.45: Effect of casting technique on secondary rate of water absorption [30F70C at
15% cement]
 94

Figure 4.46 and Figure 4.47 compare the secondary rate of water absorption of

compressed concrete mixes containing 100 percent RAs with compressed concrete mixes

considering 100 percent NAs. According to these figures, 100% compressed RAC

achieved a higher secondary rate of absorption than 100% compressed NAC due to

highly porous nature of RAs as a result of mortar attached to their surface. Furthermore,

as the coarse aggregate content in concrete mixes was decreased, the difference between

RAC and NAC water absorption was also observed to be decreased. Under the same

conditions of casting pressure and cement content, for 30F70C at 15% cement content,

the secondary rate of water absorption of RAC was 100% more than NAC at 30F70C.

Similarly, for 40F60C at 15% cement, it was 50% higher for RAC as compared to NAC..

RAC NAC
18
30F70C --15% Cement y = 0.004x + 4.077
15
Water Absorption (mm)

R² = 0.995
12
y = 0.002x + 1.786
9 R² = 0.981

6
3
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s1/2 )
Figure 4.46: Effect of aggregate type on secondary rate of water absorption [30F70C at
15% cement]
 95

RAC NAC
18
40F60C --15% Cement y = 0.003x + 3.854
15
Water Absorption (mm)
R² = 0.984
12 y = 0.002x + 2.495
9 R² = 0.990

6
3
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s1/2)

Figure 4.47: Effect of aggregate type on secondary rate of water absorption [40F60C at
15% Cement]

4.3. PHASE-III FOR 35 MPA TARGET COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

In this phase, initially samples were prepared by CCT using 100% recycled fine

aggregates and SBR Latex (Dosage: 5L/50 kg of cement) or super-plasticizer (1% by

weight of cement). Table 4-3 presents all mixes prepared for initial testing. Two cement

contents were investigated; 15% and 20% of total aggregates. W/C ratio was kept 0.60.

Tests for hardened density and compressive strength were performed on sample casted

using these mixes and the results are also presented in Table 4-3. It is clear from the

results of the compressive strength that none of the samples prepared using mixes

containing 100% recycled fine aggregates was able to attain the target compressive

strength of 35 MPa. Further, it is evident that mixes prepared using super-plasticizer SP-

303 exhibited higher compressive strength in comparison of mixes prepared using SBR-

latex.
 96

Table 4-3: Mixes containing 100% recycled fine aggregates

Sr. No. Mix Designation Density (kg/m3) Compressive Strength (MPa)

1 100F0C-C15-SBR-0.60 2006 10.72

2 100F0C-C20-SBR-0.60 2057 20.21

3 100F0C-C15-SP-0.60 1964 13.32

4 100F0C-C20-SP-0.60 1988 23.01

Based on the results of initial testing, new mixes were designed containing both

fine & coarse recycled aggregates and SP-303 (1% by weight of cement) only. Cement

content was also increased from 15%/20% to 25%/30% by weight of total aggregates was

used to prepare concrete mixes. Water to cement ratio was kept at 0.30. In order to study

the effect of w/c ratio, it was tried to prepare the samples using mixes having w/c ratio

greater than 0.3, however, it was noticed that due to higher w/c ratio [i-e greater than

0.35], it was not possible to prepare the samples by CCT due to excessive water. Detail of

new five mixes prepared accordingly is given in Table 4-4 along with their hardened

density values. Samples prepared using these mixes were tested for compressive strength.

However, modulus of elasticity in compression, Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) value

and sorptivity tests were performed on mixes at serial No. 4 and 5 in Table 4-4 because

these mixes were able to attain the required compressive strength.

4.3.1. Hardened Density

Similar to Phase-I and Phase-II, the weight and length of all test specimens were

determined after 24 hours of casting to find their density and the results [average of three
 97

samples] are provided in Table 4-4 where it may be noted that with the increase of

coarse aggregate in the mix, the density was increased as expected. The maximum

density of 2341 kg/m3 was exhibited by the mix containing 60% fine 40% coarse

aggregates and prepared using w/c ratio of 0.35.

Table 4-4: Mixes containing recycled fine and coarse aggregates

Sr. No. Mix Designation Density (kg/m3)

1 80F20C-C25-SP-0.30 2180
2 70F30C-C25-SP-0.30 2253
3 60F40C-C25-SP-0.30 2313
4 60F40C-C30-SP-0.3 2320
5 60F40C-C30-SP-0.35 2341

4.3.2. Effect of Aspect Ratio on Compressive Strength

In this phase, the effect of aspect ratio on compressive strength of the concrete

specimens was investigated in order to develop relationship between the compressive

strength of pavers of size 100×200×66 mm and cylinders of size 75×75 mm. For this

purpose, cylinders of aspect ratio of 1 and pavers having aspect ratio of 0.66 as shown in

Figure 4.48 were casted using recycled aggregate having same mix composition. Two

samples were casted for cylinders and same number of samples were prepared for pavers.

Both cylinders and pavers were cured under similar conditions for 7 days and then

compressive strength tests were performed. The 7 day compressive strength results are

shown in Figure 4.49 where it can be seen that, the compressive strength of pavers was

2.8 times more than compressive strength of the cylinder. The more compressive strength

in paver is due to the end platen and aspect ratio effects.

 98

Figure 4.48: Pavers and cylinder casted to determine aspect ratio effect

2.8 times more

Strength in Paver

100
Compressive Strength, MPa

80 70.6

60

40
25.2
20

0
Cylinder Paver

Figure 4.49: 7-Day Compressive Strength Results for Cylinders and Pavers
 99

4.3.3. Compressive Strength

The compressive strength results of concrete mixes presented in Table 4-5 are

shown in Figure 4.50, where it can be seen that the maximum compressive strength 0f

30.26 MPa was attained by mix containing 60% fine and 40% coarse aggregates and

prepared using w/c ratio of 0.35. The values of compressive strength was still lesser than

the target compressive strength of 35 MPa by 4.7 MPa as shown in Figure 4.50. However

keeping in view the relationship between the cylinder and paver strength discussed in

section 4.3.2 and ratio of 7 to 28 days strength of 0.65 it is expected to obtain a

compressive strength of 55.07 MPa at 28 days using mix 60F40C containing 30% cement

by weight of total aggregates, w/c ratio of 0.35 and super plasticizer dosage of 1% by

weight of cement. Hence, this mix ratio with w/c ratio of 0.3 & 0.35 has been

recommended for further detailed testing [Modulus of Elasticity, UPV & Sorptivity].

Table 4-5: Compressive strength results (Phase-III)

Sr. No. Mix Designation Compressive Strength (MPa)

1 80F20C-C25-SP-0.30 15.19
2 70F30C-C25-SP-0.30 16.84
3 60F40C-C25-SP-0.30 19.76
4 60F40C-C30-SP-0.3 28.10
5 60F40C-C30-SP-0.35 30.26
 100

45
Target Strength = 35 MPa
40

35
Compressive Strength (MPa)

4.7 MPa 30.26

30 28.1

25
19.76
20 16.84
15.19
15

w/c = 0.35
w/c = 0.30
10

0
80F20C-C25 70F30C-C25 60F40C-C25 60F40C-C30 60F40C-C30

Figure 4.50: Phase III-Compressive strength results

4.3.4. Modulus of Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity of the recommended mixes presented in Table 4-4 at

seal 4 &5 was determined and the values are graphically shown in Figure 4.51. In this

figure predicted Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) values using proposed equation 4-7 are

also shown. It can be observed in this figure that with the increase of w/c ratio from 0.3 to

0.35, the modulus of elasticity of the resulting concrete was slightly improved. Further,

proposed equation underestimated the elastic modulus of this concrete due to the fact that

the compressive strength range of Phase-II was 5MPa to 25MPa while in this case, the

compressive strength was higher than 25 MPa.

 101

Experimental Value Predicted Value

30
23.85 24.43
25
Modulus of ELasticity (GPa)

18.87 19.5
20

15

10

0
60F40C-C30-SP-0.3 60F40C-C30-SP-0.35

Figure 4.51: Phase-III-Modulus of Elasticity Testing

4.3.5. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

This testing was carried out on the samples casted using recommended mixes to

determine the quality of the mixes presented in Table 4-4 at serial 5 & 5 and the results

(average of 3 samples) are presented in Figure 4-52 where it can be seen that increasing

w/c ratio from 0.3 to 0.35 showed positive impact on the quality of concrete as well as

per criteria already mentioned the samples prepared using both mixes were of good

quality.
 102

5000
4280
4085
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (m/s) 4000

3000

2000

1000

0
60F40C-C30-SP-0.3 60F40C-C30-SP-0.35

Figure 4.52: Phase III-Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Testing

4.3.6. Sorptivity of Concrete

The sorptivity test of the recommended concrete mixes was carried out as per

ASTM C1585 to determine their water absorption properties. The absorption of water by

the concrete mixes was determined for a period of 8 days and the results are shown in

Figure 4.53, where it can be seen that the sorptivity of the concrete mix with w/c ratio of

0.35 was lesser than that of the mix with w/c ratio of 0.3. This indicated that w/c ratio of

0.35 permitted better packing and compaction.

The initial and secondary rate of water absorption was determined as per ASTM C1585

for mixes (60F40C) with w/c ratio 0.3 and 0.35 and the results are presented in Figure

4.54. It can be seen that the initial and secondary rate of absorption for this mix with w/c

ratio of 0.35 is lesser than that of mix with w/c ratio of 0.3. Results of water absorption,

initial and secondary rate of absorption attained by mix (60F40C) made using w/c ratio of
 103

0.35 clearly indicate that the mix is more durable as compared to the mix make using

w/c ratio of 0.30.

60F40C-C30-0.3 60F40C-C30-0.35
2.0
Water Absorption (mm)

1.6

1.2

0.8

0.4

0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
T ime (S )
1/2

Figure 4.53: Phase III-Sorptivity test results

60F40C-C30-0.3 60F40C-C30-0.35
0.006
Rate of Absorption (mm/sec1/2 )

0.005
0.004
0.004 0.0036

0.003

0.002
0.0011 0.0009
0.001

0
Initial Secondary

Figure 4.54: Initial and secondary rate of water absorption

 104

4.4. COST ANALYSIS

Cost comparison of concrete bricks manufactured using NAC and RAC with

burnt clay bricks were also done under the scope of this study. Similar comparison has

also made for pavers. For this purpose, cost of each material used in this study was

obtained from the local market.

4.4.1. Cost Analysis of Bricks

The cost comparison of RAC brick, NAC brick and burnt clay brick available in

the local market for 100cft of brickwork (1350 bricks) is presented in Figure 4.55. It can

be noticed that, the cost of 1350 RAC bricks manufactured using mix 40F60C is

significantly lesser than that of cost of same number of burnt clay brick and also NAC

bricks. The cost of RAC brick was found to be 35.4% lesser than their cost of burnt clay

bricks while it was 31.5% less than NAC bricks.

For the interest of reader, detail of rate analysis for RAC bricks made using RAC

mix 40F60C containing 10% cement is given below:

 Rate of RFA = 14.7 (30) Rs./cft

 Rate of RCA = 41.65 (85) Rs./cft

 Rate of cement = 12.96 Rs./kg

Cost of One RAC (NAC) brick Unit

 Cost of RFA (NFA) = 0.56 (1.01) Rs.

 Cost of RCA (NCA) = 2.50 (5.11) Rs.

 Cost of cement = 5.17 (5.89) Rs.

 105

 Manufacturing Cost (10% of Materials) = 0.82 (1.20) Rs.

 Total cost of one unit = 9.05 (13.21) Rs.

 Rate of RFA = 14.7 Rs./cft

 Rate of RCA = 14.7 Rs./cft

 Cost of One RAC brick Unit = 6.98 Rs. [9813 Rs. for 1350 units]

30F70C-15%C 40F60C-10%C
35000
Cost of 1350 Bricks (for 100cft Brickwork)
30000
25000 22724
18900
Cost (Rs)

20000 17121 17830

15000 12213
10000
5000
0
RAC-Brick NAC-Brick Burnt Clay Brick

Figure 4.55: Cost analysis for bricks

4.4.2. Cost Analysis for Pavers

The cost comparison of RAC paver and concrete paver made in this study

available in the local market for 1000 unit of pavers is shown in Figure 5.56. It can be

noticed that, the cost of 1000 RAC pavers manufactured using mix 60F40C with w/c of

0.3 is significantly lesser than that of cost of 1000 unit of pavers available in market. The

cost of RAC paver was 13.6% lesser than paver available in the market.
 106

20000
Cost of 1000 Pavers
16000
16000
13828 13953

12000
Cost (Rs)

8000

4000

0
60F40C-30%C-0.3 60F40C-30%C-0.35 Market Rate

Figure 4.56: Cost analysis of pavers

 107

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the experimental results obtained, various conclusions were drawn

which have been presented in this chapter. Further, certain recommendations regarding

the use of mix designs finalized in this work for future research and also their field

applications are also presented in this chapter.

5.1. CONCLUSIONS

The experimental program for this study was designed based on three objectives

presented in chapter #1 of this thesis report. Accordingly, in the following section of this

chapter the conclusions with respect to each objective of this study have been presented

separately.

5.1.1. Objective No. 1

Based on the results of the experimental work carried out in Phase-I and Phase-II

of this study, the following conclusions have been drawn:

 During sample preparation by CCT, 28% to 33% of the additional water added to

accommodate the higher water absorption of recycled aggregates is expelled out

under casting pressure of 25MPa to 45MPa resulting in lower effective w/c ratio

(lower than w/c required for hydration) which ultimately causes detrimental effect

on compressive strength of compressed concrete. To avoid such problem,

recycled aggregates are required to be used in Saturated Surface Dry (SSD)

condition for CCT.

 108

 With the increase of casting pressure, the compressive strength is increased

with the exception of mix “30F70C-15%C” at 45MPa casting pressure in this

study which needs to be verified in future work. When compared to their

corresponding vibrated concrete mixes, compressive strength of RAC-30F70C-

15%C at 25MPa casting pressure is increased by 40% while for RAC-40F60C-

10%C at 35MPa, it is increased by 19%.

 With the increase in casting pressure, the modulus of elasticity of compressed

concrete is also increased. When compared to their corresponding compressed

concrete mixes at 25 MPa casting pressure, modulus of elasticity of RAC-

30F70C-15%C at 45MPa casting pressure is increased by 62% while for RAC-

40F60C-10%C at 45MPa, it is increased by 6%.

 Based on the results obtained, following relationships between density (ρ) &

compressive strength (fc’), between E value & compressive strength, between

UPV & compressive strength and between UPV & E value of the compressed

recycled aggregate concrete containing 100% RAs are proposed:

𝑓 = 0.06𝜌 − 123 (Based on finding of Phase-II working)

.
𝐸 = 4.35 × 𝑓

.
𝑓 = 0.004 × 𝑈𝑃𝑉

.
𝐸 = 0.4 × 𝑈𝑃𝑉

 The rate of water absorption (initial and secondary as per ASTM C1585) of

compressed RAC is more than compressed NAC but it is found to be less than the

vibrated RAC.
 109

 Maximum water absorption after 24 hours in case of mix 40F60C-10%C at

25MPa casting pressure was found to be 4.73% which is significantly less than

the permissible water absorption value of burnt clay bricks (15%-20%).

 To manufacture RAC bricks, following concrete mixes with minimum possible

value of applied pressure and minimum cement contents could attain the required

compressive strength of 15MPa at 28 days:

 Concrete mix#1

o Fine Aggregate (less than 4.75mm): 40%

o Coarse Aggregates (4.75 mm to 12mm) : 60%

o Cement Content = 10% by weight of total aggregates

o Casting Pressure = 35 MPa

 Concrete mix#2

o Fine Aggregate (less than 4.75mm): 30%

o Coarse Aggregates (4.75 mm to 12mm) : 70%

o Cement Content = 15% by weight of total aggregates

o Casting Pressure = 25 MPa

5.1.2. Objective No. 2

Based on the experimental work carried out in Phase-III of this study, following

conclusions have been drawn:

 Ratio of compressive strength of paver with aspect ratio of 0.66 to cylindrical

specimen of aspect ratio equal to 1 is found to be 2.8.

 110

 Increase of w/c ratio from 0.3 to 0.35 at admixture dosage of 1% shows

positive impact on compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and sorptivity of

the resulting compressed concrete. However, beyond 0.35 w/c ratio, problems

such as bleeding are faced/observed during compression casting and it is not

possible to prepare test samples with this w/c ratio greater than 0.35.

 To manufacture RAC pavers, following concrete mix with minimum possible

value of applied pressure and minimum cement content were able to attain the

required compressive strength of 35MPa at 28 days keeping in mind the effect of

aspect ratio of cylindrical specimen and paver :

o Fine Aggregate (less than 4.75 mm in size): 60%

o Coarse Aggregates (4.75 mm to 6.35 mm in size) : 40%

o Cement Content = 30% by weight of total aggregates

o Casting Pressure = 45 MPa

o W/C Ratio = 0.35

o Super-plasticizer Dosage = 1% by weight of cement

5.1.3. Objective No. 3

Based on the cost analysis of RAC bricks and RAC pavers with their respective

natural aggregate concrete products, the following conclusions have been drawn:

 With the proposed mix design [30F70C with 15% cement & 25 MPa casting

pressure and 40F60C with 10% cement & 35 MPa casting pressure] of 15 MPa,

the compressed RAC bricks are 35.4% cheaper than burnt clay bricks considering

all factors.
 111

 With the proposed mix design of 35 MPa [60F40C with 30% cement, casting

pressure of 45 MPa, SP dosage of 1% by weight of cement and w/c ratio of 0.35],

the compressed RAC pavers are 13.6% cheaper than NAC paver considering all

factors.

5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

In continuation with the present research work, it is recommended that

following research work may be carried out in future:

 To further optimize the cement content, the use of pozzolanic materials such as

fly ash in the manufacturing of bricks and pavers is recommended to be studied.

 For such application of RAC, the effect of parent concrete strength is

recommended to be investigated.

 Experimental study may be carried out to design criterion to access the quality of

compressed recycled aggregate concrete based on ultrasonic pulse velocity value.

 Experimental study regarding manufacturing of bricks and pavers may be done

for their detail mechanical (i.e., compressive strength, water absorption) and

durability testing (i.e., exposure to variable climate conditions, abrasion

resistance) to determine their performance with respect to their field applications.

 112

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.K. Padmini, K. Ramamurthy, M.S. Mathews (2009). Influence of parent concrete on

the properties of recycled aggregate concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 23,

829-836.

ACI Committee 318. (2014). Building code requirements for structural concrete: (ACI

318-14); and commentary (ACI 318R-14). Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete

Institute.

Akkadath, A., 1Weerachart, T. & Chai, J., (2019). Environmentally friendly interlocking

concrete paving block containing new cementing material and recycled concrete

aggregate. European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, 23(12), 1467-1484

Antonio Eduardo Bezerra Cabral, Valdir Schalch, Denise Carpena Coitinho Dal Molin,

José Luis Duarte Ribeiro, (2010). Mechanical properties modeling of recycled aggregate

concrete, Construction and Building Materials, Volume 24, Issue 4, Pages 421-430.

ASTM C1585-20, (2020). Standard Test Method for Measurement of Rate of Absorption

of Water by Hydraulic-Cement Concretes. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM

International.

ASTM C597-16, (2016). Standard Test Method for Pulse Velocity through Concrete.

West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.

British Standards Institution. (2008). Eurocode 2: design of concrete structures: British

standard. London: BSi.

 113

Construction Chemical (2022), Pages: 355

Claudio, J. Z., Ángel, A. D. (2011). Use of recycled fine aggregate in concretes with

durable requirements. Waste Management, 31, 2336–2340.

D. Breysse, (2012). Nondestructive evaluation of concrete strength: An historical review

and a new perspective by combining NDT methods, Construction and Building Materials,

Volume 33, Pages 139-163, ISSN 0950-0618.

D. Pedro, J. de Brito, L. Evangelista (2014). Influence of the use of recycled concrete

aggregates from different sources on structural concrete. Construction and Building

Materials, 71, 141–151

Eshmaiel, G., Ghassan, J., Homayoon, S., (2015). Using waste materials and by-products

to produce concrete paving blocks. Construction and Building Materials, 77, 270-275.

European Environment Agency (EEA), 2008. Effectiveness of Environmental Taxes and

Charges for Managing Sand, Gravel and Rock Extraction in Selected EU Countries. EEA

Report No. 2/2008. Schultz Grafisk, Copenhagen

European Environment Agency, 2008. Effectiveness of Environmental Taxes and

Charges for Managing Sand, Gravel and Rock Extraction in Selected EU Countries. EEA

Report No. 2/2008. Schultz Grafisk, Copenhagen.

F. López Gayarre, C. López-Colina, M.A. Serrano, A. López-Martínez (2013).

Manufacture of concrete kerbs and floor blocks with recycled aggregate from C&DW.

Construction and Building Materials, Volume 40, pg. 1193–1199.

 114

Fisher, C., Werge, M., 2009. EU as a Recycling Society. ETC/SCP Working Paper

2/2009.

ISO, 2016. Business Plan. ISO/TC 71 Concrete, Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed

Concrete

J., A., Bhat, 2021. Effect of strength of parent concrete on the mechanical properties of

recycled aggregate concrete, Journal of materials today: proceedings, Volume 42, pg.

1462–1469.

J.R. Leslie, W.J. Cheeseman, 1949. An ultrasonic method for studying deterioration and

cracking in concrete structures, ACI Mater. J. 46 (2) 17–36.

K., Rashid, M., Rehman, J., Brito, H., Ghafoor (2020). Multi-criteria optimization of

recycled aggregate concrete mixes, Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 276,124316.

Mália M, de Brito J, Duarte Pinheiro M, Bravo M. (2013), Construction and demolition

waste indicators. Waste Management Resources, Volume 31 (3), pg. 241–55.

Pierre Matar, Jean Barhoun, (2020). Effects of waterproofing admixture on the

compressive strength and permeability of recycled aggregate concrete, Journal of

Building Engineering, Volume 32, 101521.

R., Y., Hassan, G., A., Faroun, S., K., Mohammed (2021). Mechanical properties of

concrete made with coarse and fine recycled aggregates, Journal of materials today:

proceedings, ISSN 2214-7853.

R.F. Feldman, (1977). Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete, CBD-187, National

Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.

 115

Ravindrarajah R.S., Tam C.T., (1985). Properties of concrete made with crushed

concrete as coarse aggregate. Magazine of Concrete Research, 37(130):29–38

TIS 827. (1988). Standard for interlocking concrete paving block (pp. 1–17). Bangkok,

Thailand: Thai Industrial Standard.

Xiao J., Z., Li, W., G., Poon, C., S., (2012), Recent studies on mechanical properties of

recycled aggregate concrete in China—A review. Sci China Tech Sci, Volume 55, pg.

1463-1480.

Xiao, JZ., Li, JB. & Zhang, C., (2006). On relationships between the mechanical

properties of recycled aggregate concrete: An overview. Material Structures, 39, 655–

664.

Xinyi, W., Chee, S. C., Jun X., (2019). Material Characterization for Sustainable

Concrete Paving Blocks. Applied Sciences, Volume 9, pg. 1197.

Yuva, S., Biruktawit, T., Tarekegne & Toshiharu, K., (2016). Recycling of hardened

Cementitious Material by Pressure & Control of Volumetric Changes. Journal of

Advanced Concrete Technology, Volume 14, pg. 47-54.

 VITA

Engr. Zaib-un-Nisa passed her matriculation and intermediate from Board of

Intermediate and Secondary Education, Lahore in 2013 and in 2015, respectively with

A+ Grade. After that in September 2015, she got admission in the Civil Engineering

Department of University of Engineering and Technology Lahore, and graduated in

November 2019 with honors. She was also awarded with gold medal for overall best

performance among female students of her session (2015-2019). Later on, she got

admission in M.Sc. Civil Engineering with specialization in Structural Engineering at

University of Engineering and Technology Lahore in September 2019 and expected to

receive her Master Degree in Structural Engineering in 2022.