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General Concepts about the Control Systems

 Introduction:
Control systems play a vital role in our day –to– day life. The
notion of an automatic control system is basic and well mixed in
every facet of our life. Automatic control systems play an
important role in the advancement and improvement of
engineering skills. There is a series of unending
implementations of control systems, from a simple bread toaster
to a complex power plant, and also in the working of sattelites,
guided missiles, ect.
Control systems in a multidisciplinary field covering many areas
of engineering and sciences.
 Control systems have existed since the beginning of life.
Consider how the human body regulates temperature. If the
body needs to heat itself, food calories are converted to produce
heat; on the other hand, evaporation causes cooling. If
temperature sensors in the body notice a drop in temperature,
they signal the body to burn more fuel. If the sensors indicate
too high a temperature, they signal the body to sweat.
 Control systems have existed in some form since the time
of the ancient Greeks. One interesting device is a pool of water
that could never be emptied. The pool had a concealed float-ball
and valve arrangement similar to a toilet tank mechanism.
When the water level lowered, the float dropped and opened a
valve that admitted more water.

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 In a modern control system, electronic intelligence

controls some physical process automatically. Because the
machine itself is making the routine decisions, the human
operator is freed to do other things. An example of this is a
home heating system maintaining a set temperature regardless
of changing outside conditions. Another example is an industrial
robot moving parts from place to place.
 Control System Definition: A control system is a collection
components working together to achieve a desired purpose.
Figure 1.1 shows general block diagram of a control system.

Figure 1.1: A block diagram of a control system.

Any control system consists of the following:
 Set point: is the input to the system, which is a command
applied to a control system or a signal representing the
desired system output.
 Controller: is the intelligence of the system and is usually
electronic, may be used to produce a desired behavior of the
process.
 Actuator: is an electromechanical device that takes the signal
from the controller and converts it into some kind of physical
action. Examples of typical actuators would be an electric
motor, an electrically controlled valve, or a heating element.
 Process: is the physical process being controlled and affected
by the actuator.

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 Controlled variable: is the measurable result of the process.

For example of control system (antenna position), if the
actuator is an electric motor that rotates an antenna, then the
process is “rotating of the antenna,” and the controlled variable
is the angular position of the antenna. A controller is used to
control the antenna at the desired position.
 Manual Control Systems: Manual control systems are
provided human operators with machinery to assist them with
the powerful requirements of work.
Example 1.1: Consider a simple system for maintaining the
liquid level in a tank at a constant value by controlling the
incoming flow rate as shown in Figure 1.2. The input is a
reference level of liquid that the operator is instructed to
maintain. The controller is the operator, the manual valve is the
actuator, and the sensor is visual. The operators compares the
actual level with the desired level and opens or closes the valve,
adjusting the liquid inlet flow, to maintain the desired level.

Figure 1.2: Manual control system for maintaining the proper liquid level
in a tank.

Automatic Control Systems:

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Automatic control system is the system itself making the routine

decisions without human operator.
Example 1.2: Consider a simple system - same as the previous
example- for maintaining the liquid level in a tank to a constant
value automatically as shown in Figure 1.3. If the liquid level
falls a little too low, the float moves down, thus opening the
control valve to increase the inlet flow of liquid until reach the
desired level. Then, the float moves up and the control valve
should be closed. In this system, the operating conditions may
change causing the liquid level to deviate from the desired point
in either direction but the system will tend to restore it to the
set value.

Figure 1.3: Automatic control system for maintaining the proper liquid level
in a tank.
 Advantages of Control Systems:
A control systems are built for four primary reasons:
1. Power amplification: For example, a radar antenna,
positioned by the low power rotation of a knob at the input,
requires a large amount of power for its output rotation. A
control system can produce the needed power amplification.

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2. Remote control: For example, robots designed by control

system principles can compensate for human disabilities.
Control systems are also useful in remote or dangerous
locations. For example, a remote controlled robot arm can be
used to pick up material in a dangerous environment.
3. Convenience of input form: Control systems can also be used
to provide convenience by changing the form of the input. For
example, in a temperature control system, the input is a
position on a thermostat. The output is temperature. Thus, a
convenient position input yields a desired temperature
output.
4. Compensation for disturbances: The system must be able to
yield the correct output even with a disturbance. For
example, consider an antenna system that points in a
command direction. If wind forces the antenna from its
commanded position, or if the internally noise occurs, the
system must be able to detect the disturbance and correct
the antenna’s position.
 Categories of Control Systems:
Control systems can be generally divided into two categories:
open- and closed-loop systems.
1. Open Loop Control Systems:
In an open loop control system as shown in Figure 1.4, the
controller independently calculates exact voltage or current
needed by the actuator to do the job and sends it. With this
approach, however, the controller never actually knows if the

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actuator did what it was supposed to do, because there is no

feedback (the controller has no way of knowing of the error and
does nothing to correct it). This system absolutely depends on
the controller knowing the operating characteristics of the
actuator.
Open loop control systems are appropriate in applications
where the action of the actuator on the process are very
repeatable and reliable.

Figure 1.4: Block diagram of open loop control system.

Example 1.3: Figure 1.5 shows an open-loop control system. The
actuator is a motor driving a robot arm. In this case, the process
is the arm moving, and the controlled variable is the position of
the arm. Earlier tests have shown that the motor rotates the
arm at 5 degrees/second at the rated voltage. Assume that the
controller is directed to move the arm from 0° to 30°. Knowing
the characteristics of the process, the controller sends a 6-
second power pulse to the motor. If the motor is acting
properly, it will rotate exactly 30° in the 6 seconds and stop. On
particularly cold days, however, the lubricant is more viscous
(thicker), causing more internal friction (internal disturbance),
and the motor rotates only 25° in the 6 seconds; the result is a
5° error. The controller has no way of knowing of the error and
does nothing to correct it.

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Figure 1.5: Open loop control system.

Advantages of Open Loop Control Systems:
The major advantages of open-loop control systems are as
follows:
1. Simple construction and ease of maintenance.
2. Less expensive than a corresponding closed-loop system.
3. There is no stability problem.
4. Convenient when output is hard to measure.
Disadvantages of Open Loop Control Systems:
The major disadvantages of open-loop control systems are as
follows:
1. Disturbances and changes in calibration cause errors, and the
output may be different from what is desired.
2. To maintain the required quality in the output, recalibration
is necessary from time to time.
 Closed Loop Control Systems:
In a closed-loop control system, the output of the process
(controlled variable) is constantly monitored by a sensor, as

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shown in Figure 1.6. The sensor measures the system output

and converts this measurement into an electric signal that it
passes back to the controller. Because the controller knows
what the system is actually doing, it can make any adjustments
necessary to keep the output where it belongs. The signal from
the controller to the process is the forward path, and the signal
from the sensor to the controller is the feedback (which “closes”
the loop). The feedback signal is subtracted from the set point
at the comparator (just a head of the controller). By subtracting
the actual value (as reported by the sensor) from the desired
value (as defined by the set point), we get the system error. The
error signal represents the difference between the actual value
and desired value. The controller is always working to minimize
this error signal. A zero error means that the output is exactly
what the set point says it should be.

Figure 1.6: Block diagram of closed loop control system.

Example 1.4: As an example of a closed-loop control system,
consider again the robot arm resting at 0° [see Figure 1.7(b)].
This time a potentiometer (pot) has been connected directly to
the motor shaft. As the shaft turns, the pot resistance changes.
The resistance is converted to voltage and then fed back to the

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controller. To command the arm to 30°, a set-point voltage

corresponding to 30° is sent to the controller. Because the
actual arm is still resting at 0°, the error signal “jumps up” to
30°. Immediately, the controller starts to drive the motor in a
direction to reduce the error. As the arm approaches 30°, the
controller slows the motor; when the arm finally reaches 30°,
the motor stops. If at some later time, an external force
(external disturbance) moves the arm off the 30° mark, the
error signal would reappear, and the motor would again drive
the arm to the 30° position.

Figure 1.7: Closed loop control system.

Advantages of Closed Loop Control Systems:
The major advantages of the closed loop systems as the follows:
1. Increased accuracy: its ability to reproduce the input
accurately.
2. Fasted the system response.

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3. Reduced sensitivity for variations in the system and other

parameters.
4. Reduced effects of external disturbance or noise, and
nonlinearities.
Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control Systems:
The major disadvantages of the closed loop systems as the
follows:
1. Tendency towards oscillation or instability.
2. Are expensive and maintenance difficult.
Control Systems Examples:
These following examples give an overall picture of the wide use
of control in modern technology. Furthermore, some of these
examples show how the principles of control can be used to
understand and solve control problems in other fields. From the
examples that follow, it will become clear that many control
systems are designed in such a way as to control automatically
certain variables of the system (e.g., the position or velocity of a
mass, the temperature of a room, etc.). It is remarked that for
the special category of control systems where we control a
mechanical movement (e.g., the position or velocity of a mass)
the term servomechanism is widely used.
Automobile steering control system:
Driving an automobile is a pleasant task when the auto responds
rapidly to the driver’s commands. Many cars have power
steering and brakes, which utilize hydraulic amplifiers for
amplification of the force to the brakes or the steering wheel.

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The desired course is compared with a measurement of the

actual course in order to generate a measure of the error, as
shown in Figure 1.8(a). A simple block diagram of an automobile
steering control system is shown in Figure 1.8(b). This
measurement is obtained by visual and tactile (body movement)
feedback. There is an additional feedback from the feel of the
steering wheel by the hand (sensor). This feedback system is a
familiar version of the steering control system in an ocean liner
or the flight controls in a large airplane. A typical direction-of-
travel response is shown in Figure 1.8(c).

Figure 1.8: An automobile steering control system.

Remote Antenna Positioning System:
Servomechanisms is the traditional term applied to describe a
closed-loop electromechanical control system that directs the
precise movement of a physical object such as a radar antenna
or robot arm. An example of a servomechanism is the
positioning system for a radar antenna, as shown in Figure 1.9.

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In this case, the controlled variable is the antenna position. The

antenna is rotated with an electric motor connected to the
controller located some distance away. The user selects a
direction, and the controller directs the antenna to rotate to a
specific position.

Figure 1.9: A servomechanism (a remote antenna positioning system).

Industrial Robot:
A robot is a machine designed to execute one or more tasks
automatically with speed and precision. Robots can be guided
by an external control device or the control may be embedded
within. There are as many different types of robots as there are
tasks for them to perform. Industrial robot as shown in Figure
1.10 is classic example of position control systems. In most
cases, the robot has a single arm with shoulder, elbow, and
wrist joints, as well as some kind of hand known as an end
effector. The end effector is either a gripper or other tool such
as a paint spray gun. Robots are used to move parts from place
to place, and perform such tasks as spray painting and welding.

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Figure 1.10: A pick-and-place robot.

Remote Control:
A remote control is a component of an electronic device used to
operate the device from a distance, usually wirelessly. NASA is
developing remote manipulators that can be used to extend the
hand and the power of humankind through space by means of
radio. We consider a remote control system that can control
from the earth, the motion of a robot arm on the surface of the
moon. As shown in Figure 1.11, the operator at earth station
watches the robot on the moon on a TV monitor. The system’s
output is the position of the robot’s arm and the input is the
position of the control stick. The operator compares the desired
and the real position of the robot’s arm, by looking at the
position of the robot’s arm on the monitor and decides on how
to move the control stick so that the position of the robot arm is
the desired one.

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Figure 1.11: Remote manipulator on the moon controlled by a person on

the earth.
Automatic Aircraft Landing System
The automatic aircraft landing system in a simplified form is
depicted in Figure 1.12. The system consists of three basic
parts: The aircraft, the radar unit and the controlling unit. The
radar unit measures the approximate vertical and lateral
positions of the aircraft, which are then transmitted to the
controlling unit. From the measurement, the controlling unit
calculates appropiate pitch and bank commands. These
commands are then transmitted to the aircraft autopilots which
in turn cause the aircraft to respond.

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Figure 1.12: Automatic Aircraft Landing System.

Room Heating System:
A room heater without any temperature sensing device is an
example of an open loop control system. In this, an electric
furnace is used to heat the room. The output is desired room
temperature. The temperature of the room is risen by the heat
generated by the heating element. The output temperature
depends on the time during which is supply to the heater
remains ON. The ON-OFF time of the heater is set as per some
calculation. Whatever may be the room temperature, after the
set time, the heater will be OFF. The actual temperature is not
compared with the reference temperature and the difference is
not used for correction.
The above system becomes a closed loop system as shown in
Figure 1.13 if a thermocouple is provided to measure the actual
temperature, and the actual temperature is compared with the

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reference, and the difference is used to control the timing for

which the heater is ON.

Figure 1.13: A closed-loop room-heating system.

Washing Machine:
A washing machine without any cleanliness measuring system is
an example of an open loop control system. In this, the soaking,
washing, and rinsing in the washer operate on a time basis. The
machine ON time is set based on some calculation. The machine
does not measure the output signal, that is cleanliness of the
clothes. Once the set ON time is over, the machine will
automatically stop, whatever may be level of cleanliness.
This can be a closed loop control system, if the level of
cleanliness can be measured and compared with the desired
cleanliness (reference input) and the difference is used to
control the washing time of the machine.

Homework 1.1: Identify the following as open- or closed-loop

control, and give the reasons:
1. Stopping a clothes dryer when the clothes are dry.

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2. Actuation of street lights at 7 P.M.

3. Automatic traffic control system.
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Homework 1.2: Draw the component block diagram for each of
the following common systems:
1. The elevator position control system.
2. The water level controlled by a float and valve.
Then, identify the following components in each diagram:
Actuator, process, controlled output, sensor, and reference
input.
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Homework 1.3: The controlled variable in a closed-loop system
is a robot arm. Initially, it is at 45°; then it is commanded to go
to 30°. Describe what happens in terms of set point, error
signal, controller, and arm position.
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Homework 1.4: With explanation, give two examples of open
loop and closed loop control systems.
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Homework 1.5: Consider an antenna control system as shown
in Figure 1.14. The purpose of this system is to have the angle

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output of the antenna, follow the input angle of the

potentiometer. Do the following:
1. Draw the block diagram of the system.
2. What is the function for each component?
3. What is the desired output and controlled variable of the
system?
4. What is the objective of this system?

Figure 1.14: An antenna positioning system.

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Homework 1.6: A bottle filling line uses a feeder screw
mechanism as shown in Figure 1.15.

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Figure 1.15: System layout of bottle filling line.

1.Draw the control system block diagram.

2.Identify the actuator(s) and sensor(s) that may be present in
this system.
3.Explain the principle operation of this system. In case if the
system is open loop and closed loop (let the controlled
variable is the measured level).
Homework 1.7: The process control as illustrated in Figure 1.16
is a closed-loop system maintaining a specified temperature in
an electric oven:
1. Draw the block diagram, and identify the actuator, process,
sensor, and controlled variable.
2. What is the function of the controller?
3. If the set point in the system equal to 75 ℃. What is the value
of the output that makes the steady state error equal to zero.

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Figure 1.16: A closed-loop oven-heating system.

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Homework 1.8: Describe a feedback control system in which a
user utilizes a smart phone to remotely monitor and control a
washing machine as illustrated in Figure 1.17. The control
system should be able to start and stop the wash cycle, control
the amount of detergent and the water temperature, and
provide notifications on the status of the cycle.

Figure 1.17: Using a smart phone to remotely monitor and control a

washing machine.

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